法学专业英语教程之期法律英语末复习

Unit One :Introduction to the American Legal System

1.What is law?Though we used the word “law ” very often in our daily conversations,we use it in so many that there is no simple answer to this question.

译：何为法律？纵使我们在日常对话中经常用到“法律”一词，我们仍然无法对这个问题简要回答。

2.Law has been defined as a set of rules that govern the actions of people in a com munity.These rules must be followed by citizens,and violation of these rules may give rise to a known to lawyers and judges, ignorance if which excuses no one,not even the members of society.

译：法律曾被定义为规范一个群体中人们的行为的一套规则。公民必须遵守这些规则，违反这类规则将会引起诉讼的案由。这种观点将法律视为一套被律师和法官所知悉的、固定的规则，不了解这条规则的人并不能因此被免除责任，即使他们文化水平低或经济条件差也不能例外。

3.Another view is that law is a method of establishing order by maintaining authority if a ruler over those ruled.According to this view, law begins only when a social norms.The control group need not be agents of a political entity, but may be labor,business,or church organizations.And the coercion can be psychological as well as physical.

译：另一种观点认为，法律是统治者通过保持其权威，建立秩序规则，统治被统治者的一种方法。根据这种观点，只有在强制力的机构产生且其通过实施社会规范来维持控制时，法律才开始形成。控制集团不一定要是政治实体的代表，可以是工人、商人或教会组织。这种强制可以是心理的也可以是生理的。

4.Most observes, however, believe that law exist only in a formal setting that involves the arms of a political body and its system.This view holds that although rules are an important part of the process, the emphasisis upon actions for the purpose of to those rules. Law is thus defined as the formal means of social controlthat involves the use of rules that are interpreted, and are enforceable, by the courts of a political community.The hallmark of law is the obligation to act in line with norms authoritatively determined.

译：多数人认为，法律只存在于一种包含政治实体的立法、司法和行政机构 及其制度的正式的环境中。这种观点认为，尽管规则是总过程中一个重要的组成部分，重点却在于为使人们遵守这些规则而采取的行动。因此，法律被定义为一种正式的社会控制手段，这涉及了规则的使用和理解，还包含了可以由法院这个政治团体来强制实行。法律的标志是人人都必须遵守权威机构认定的行为规则。

5.Laws may be classified in many ways. They are sometimes classified as substantive law and procedural law.The rules of law that are used to resolve disputes

are referred to begun, how the trial is conducted, how appeals are taken, and how a judgment is enforced are called Substantive law defines rights, and procedural law establishes the procedures by which these rights are enforced and protected. For example, A and B have entered into a agreement, and A claims B has breached the agreement. The rules that provide for bringing B into court and for the conduct of the trial are rather mechanical and they constitute procedural law. Whether the agreement was enforceable and whether A is entitled to damages are matters of substance and would be determined on the basis of the substantive law of contracts.

译：法律分类有很多种划分方法。有时它们被划分为为实体法和程序法。用 于实际裁决纠纷的法律被称为实体法。决定诉讼何时开始、审判如何进行、如何上诉、判决如何被执行的法律程序被称为程序法。实体法界定权利，而程序法确认施行和保护这些权利的程序。举个例子，A 和B 达成了协议，A 主张B 违反约定。将B 推上法庭和支持审判所依据的规则是相当机械的，这些规则就是程序法。至于上述协议是否可执行以及A 是否应得到损失赔偿则是实质性的问题，将取决于实体的合同法。

6.Law is also frequently classified into public law and private law. Public law includes those bodies of law that affect the public generally. It can be further divided into constitutional law, administrative law and criminal law.Private law includes the areas of law that concern the relationships between individuals in an organized society. It covers the subjects of contracts, torts and property, each of which can be subdivided into several bodies of law .The law of torts is the primary source of in America. It deals withthe theory that in a civilized society, people who injure other persons or their property must them for their loss.

译：法律也经常被分为公法和私法。公法通常包括影响公众的法律。公法又可进一步细分为宪法、行政法和刑法。私法包括涉及有组织的社会中个人间相互关系的法律领域。它涵盖了合同、侵权和知识产权等领域，每一部分又可以再细分为许多方面。侵权法是美国诉讼的主要依据。它处理的是侵犯个人权利的不法行为，它的理论依据是:在文明社会里, 危害他人或他人财产者必须赔偿损失。

7.Classification of law according to subject matter can often be difficult because the law is indeed a seamless web, and overlapping is inevitable if we divide it according toa clear-cut definition. Assume that a person is injured by a product he has purchased. The law of sales, even though a part of the law of contracts, contains several aspects that could best be labeled a branch of the law of torts. Therefore, it is apparent that even the general classification of contract and tort is not accurate in describing the subject matter of various bodies of law.

译：根据不同的内容将法律进行分类通常很难，因为法律是一个没有缝隙的 网络，如果我们根据法律清晰明确的定义划分法律，那么相互交叉是无法避免的。设想某人被他所购买的产品伤害。销售法尽管是合同法的一个部分，它的不少内容如果将其列为侵权法的一个分支也许是最合适。所以很明显，即便是合同法和侵权法这样的大体的分类在描述各种法律的内容时也是不尽准确的。

8.The phrase "sources of law" is often used to describe methods and procedures by which law is created and developed, or the origin from which particular laws derive their authority or coercive force.

译：“法的渊源”通常是被用来描述产生和制订法律的方法和程序，或者是 特定法律的权威性和强制力的渊源。

9.Law in Western societies has developed along two lines.In the countries of continental Europe and those areas influenced by them, the governing law dates back to Roman law and is known as the civil law system. The law with which Americans are more familiar is known as the common law, which developed in English speaking countries.

译：西方社会法律的发展因循两条不同的道路。在欧洲大陆国家和受它们影 响的地区，目前适用的法律可追溯到罗马法，被称为大陆法系。美国人更为熟悉的法律被称为普通法，它主要在英语国家发展。

10.The major difference between the two systems lies in the operation of the judicial processes. Adjudication under the civil law is made by the judge following principles originating from Roman law and embodied at present under an extensive code of law in effect in that particular country. The judge must apply the appropriate section of the code to the case in court. The common law, on the other hand , develops more through the decisions of judges applying prior decisions of courts to the new facts at hand. Under the common law system, a very substantial part of law is not to be found in statutes enacted by legislatures but rather in cases. A case once decided establishes to a certain extent, and will be followed by the courts when similar issues arise later. Although judges tend to focus more upon statutes or administrative rules these days, the fact that they still review past cases before making a decision shows that adherence to decided cases is still kept as a tradition in American courts.

译：两个法系之间的主要区别在于司法运行的程序不同。在大陆法系统中， 由法官判案，所遵循的原则来源于罗马法，而今则体现于该国有效的内容广泛的法典中。法官必须将法典中相关的条文应用于正在审理的案件中。而普通法则是由法官将以前法庭的判决应用于当前的新情况作出判决而形成的。在普通法系统中，相当一部分法律并不存在于立法机关通过的法规条文而在于判例。案子一旦判决，就在某种程度上确立了一个有约束力的先例，法庭以后遇到类似诉讼即按该先例作出判决。即使近年来法官更趋向于运用法律和行政法规，事实上他们仍然会在作出案件判决前回顾先例，这显示遵循先例仍然是美国法庭的传统。

11.Because of the common law tradition, American law comes from four basic sources: the federal and state constitutions, statutes made by the United States congress and the legislatures of the various states, case law or judge-made law( uncodified law based on judicial decisions), and rules and decisions formulated by administrative agencies collectively known as administrative law. However, the judicial system has established a general priority among the various sources of law. Constitution prevails over statutes, and statutes prevail over common law principles

established in court decisions. Courts will not turn to case decisions for law if a statute is directly in point.

译：由于普通法传统的原因，美国法有四个基本法律渊源：联邦和州的宪法、由美国一会和各个州的立法机关制定的成文法、判例法或法官造法（基于司法判决的不成文法）、统称为行政法的行政机构制定的规则和决策。然而，司法系统在不同法律渊源之间已经建立了一个通常的优先次序。宪法优先于成文法，成文法优先于司法判决的不成文法。法院不会在有成文法的直接规定的情况下从先例中找寻依据。

Unit Two :Duality（双轨制）in the American Legal System

1.The American legal system features a complexity resulting from American federalism. Within the federal structure, each state retains a substantial degree of autonomy. Each has its own constitution, statutes made by its own legislature, and a body of case law created by its own courts. So it can be said that instead of one uniform set of laws America has fifty one a set of laws for each of the fifty states and one for the federation.

译：美国的法律制度的复杂性归因于美国的联邦制。在联邦分权制下,

每个州保留相当程度的自治。各州都有自己的宪法、立法机关制定的成文法和大量的由州法院作出的判例法。所以可以说美国没有一套全国统一的法律，取而代之的是美国51个州各自拥有的51套州法律，还有一套联邦的。

2.A complication resulting from this duality, or multiplicity, is that choice of law questions frequently arise in multi-state transactions or occurrences if a dispute arises out of a series of activities in different states, or between citizens of different states, and the substantive rights at issue are defined differently in these states, the choice of applicable law, which is governed by different choice of law rules of different states, becomes a very complicated question.

译：双轨制或者说法律的多元化所带来的复杂情况之一是在涉及跨州交易或事件的诉讼中往往出现法律选择问题：如果引起纠纷的一系列活动在不同的州或当事人来自不同的州，而这些州关于实体性权力的定义不同，选择何种法律适用取决于不同州的不同法律选择，这将导致一个非常复杂的问题。

*这一段有长难句，我翻太烂，可自行翻译。

3.The trend toward uniform statutes has tended to reduce this complication, but conflicts of law problems still exist. So, in studying American law, students should be aware that different states may have different substantive laws and different choice of law rules regarding a particular legal situation, resulting in the possibility that the choice of forum may affect the substantive rights of the parties concerned.

译：统一法律规定的倾向更趋向于减少这种复杂情况，但法律选择的纷争依 然存在。所以，在学习美国法律是，学生应当注意，关于一个特定的法律情形，不同州可能拥有不同的实体法律和不同的法律选择，这导致选择不同的法院可能影响当事人所关心的实体权利。

4.Choice of forum also adds to the complexity of litigation in America, because duality is also present in America's court system. Instead of one unified set of courts, America has fifty one sets, each of which operates independently of the others, and each of which is complete with its own trial and appellate courts.

译：选择法院也增加了美国诉讼的复杂性，因为美国的法院系统同样存在双 轨制。取代一个统一的法院系统，美国拥有51个法院系统，他们彼此独立运行 且拥有完整的审判和上诉法院。

5.The state courts are the courts in which disputes are ordinarily and .

译：纠纷的解决通常是州法院审理的。其初审法院包括有限管辖权法院和一 般管辖权法院。

6.Most states have trial courts of limited jurisdiction. These are authorized to hear and determine cases involving a relatively small amount of money or particular subject matters. The names and authority of courts of limited jurisdiction vary from state to state.

译：大多数州有有限管辖权的初审法院。这些低级法院被授权审理和判决小 额诉讼或特定种类的诉讼。这些有限管辖权法院的名称和权力因州而异。

7.All states have courts, usually organized along county lines, for hearing cases of all types, unlimited by subject matter or amount in controversy. Such courts are referred to as the trial courts of general jurisdiction. The court of general jurisdiction is known by different names in different states: in California it is the 1; in New York, it is the 2; in many states it is the 3; in other states it is known as the 4, the 5, 6, and other names. Whatever its name this is the court which hears all cases that are not channeled elsewhere.

译：所有的州都拥有一种法院，通常根据郡县的边界划分，审理所有种类的 案件，不受案件种类和诉讼金额的限制。这类法院就是有一般管辖权的初审法院。该类法院在不同州有不同的叫法：在加州它被称作高级法院1；在纽约它被称作最高法院2；在很多州它被称为巡回法院3；在其他州它被称为州地方法院4、地方法院5或普通法院6等。不论它叫什么名字，这类法院都审理所有的案件，不会被移送到任何其他法院。（斜体为自己的蹩脚翻译）

8.Most states permit appeal of the determinations made by courts of limited jurisdiction. In some states, a litigant dissatisfied with the result of the decision by the inferior court may request that the case be retried in the court of general jurisdiction. In some states, the appeal to the court of general jurisdiction is the final appeal and in others, the decision of the court of general jurisdiction may bereviewed by .

译：大多数州的允许上诉的决定由限制管辖权法院作出。在一些州，一个当 事人不服低级法院作出的判决结果可能请求由一般管辖权法院重审。在一些州，一般管辖权法院对上诉案件的审理是终审上诉而在另一些州一般管辖权法院作

出的判决可能会被再上诉。

9.All states permit appellate review of the decisions of courts of general jurisdiction. Today, the procedure for obtaining appellate review is usually referred to as an appeal. In a few states there is but oneappellate court for appeals from the trial courts of general jurisdiction. Such an appellate court is usually known as the Supreme Court of the state, but in some states it is known as the Court of Appeals or by some other name. In other states there are two levels of appellate courts, the intermediate appellate courts （usually known as the courts of appeals ） and the supreme court. All types of appeals from the trial courts are taken to the intermediate appellate courts; further review in the state supreme court is taken only at the discretion of the supreme court or upon special request of the intermediate appellate court.

译：所有州都允许对一般管辖权法院的判决进行上诉审查。如今，为获取上 诉审查所经的程序通常被称为上诉。有少数的州有至少法院一个受理来自一般管辖权法院的初审上诉案件。这类法院通常被称为最高法院，在有些州也被称为上诉法院等其他名称。在另一些州，上诉法院分为两级，即中级上诉法院（通常也被称为上诉法院）和最高法院。来自初审法院的所有类型的上诉都由中级上诉法院关系；只有在行使自由裁量权或中级上诉法院的特殊要求时才会被最高法院管辖。

10.The Federal court system parallels the court systems of the states except that the federal courts are courts of limited subject .

译：联邦法院系统平行于州法院系统，联邦法院的对事管辖权是有限的。

11.The principal trial court of the federal system is the district court. The district courts are organized along territorial lines called districts.Each district comprises a state or a portion of a state.

译：联邦体制最重要的初审法院是州地方法院。这类法院是根据由领土接线 划分出来的州设立的。每个区域由一个州或一个州的一部分组成。

12.The federal district courts have jurisdiction over several types of cases. A principal type includes actions between citizens of different states where the amount in controversy exceeds $ 10, 000. This is known as the "" of the federal courts. A second principal type includes actions by individuals "arising under" federal law, known asthird principal type of federal jurisdiction is actions by or against the Federal Government and its agencies.

译：联邦地区法院对多类案子有管辖权。非常重要的一类包含当事人不在同 一州、争议标的额超过1万美金的案件。第二类案件包括判决理由实质是建立于对联邦宪法或法律的解释时适用联邦法院而引起的个人案件，这类案件被称为“联邦问题”管辖权案件。第三类由联邦法院管辖的重要的案件是涉及联邦政府及其机构的案件。

13.Determinations made in the federal district courts are ordinarily appealable to the United States Courts of Appeals, the intermediate appellate courts of the federal system. The Courts of Appeals, formerly known as the Circuit Courts, principally are organized territorially by groups of states known as circuits.There are at present thirteen Courts of Appeals, eleven bearing numbers （First Circuit, Second Circuit, etc. ） with the twelfth being the Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia and the thirteenth being the Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit. Each Circuit Court consists of several judges who ordinarily of three for each case4.

译：联邦区法院作出的判决通常可向由美国联邦上诉法院上诉，即联邦系统 的中级上诉法院审理。上诉法院，原先被称为巡回法院，主要是由地域相近的几个州“划圈”组合而成的。（瞎翻译的）现如今至少有13个上诉法院，11个bearing numbers （第一巡回、第二巡回等），第十二个是哥伦比亚区的上诉法院，第十三个是联邦巡回上诉法院。每个巡回法院由若干法官组成，每个案件通常由3个法官组成合议庭审理。

14.The highest court in the federal system is of course the Supreme Court of the United States. The Supreme Court has original jurisdiction over a very limited class of cases, chiefly actions between states. Its appellate jurisdiction covers cases originating in the lower federal courts as well as certain types of cases originating in state courts. Potentially, any case originating in a federal district court may be taken to the Supreme Court.Most of such cases must be appealed initially to the courts of appeals and may be thereafter taken to the Supreme Court at the latter's discretion.Of cases originating in state courts, only those presenting questions of federal law may be considered by the Supreme Court.

译：联邦法院系统的最高法院是美国最高法院。该法院只在非常有限的情况 下拥有原始管辖权，主要管辖州际案件。其上诉管辖权涵盖一些源于联邦下级法院以及某些类型的情况下源于州法院的案件。潜在地，任何源于联邦区法院的案子都有可能被上交最高法院。其中大多数的案子在初次上诉后，仍然可以由最高法院对其行使自由裁量权。而源于州法院的案件，只有在涉及联邦问题的时候才会被最高法院考虑。

Unit Three :The Adversary System in the American Judicial Process

1.The law of procedure is the body of rules that governs or provides the frame-work of the judicial process. The judicial process, in turn, guides the operation of courts in the determination of legal controversies, or, as a legal scholar defines it, the judicial process is the decision by the court of controversies between individuals （or between an individual and the State ）by rational and not merely personal considerations based on law and justice. These definitions are terribly inadequate, but they may serve our purpose if we understand from them the following points ；（1）The judicial process deals not with abstract questions or hypothetical situations but with actual controversies between real parties；（2）These controversies are such that the community will direct its to their resolution；（3）

This resolution proceeds not arbitrarily but according to some standards of general application ；（4）

译：法律程序是一套管理司法程序并为之提供框架的规则。司法程序也反过 头来，在确定法律争议时引导法庭的运作，或者像法律学者一样为其下定义，司法程序是法院判决私人间（或私人和国家间）争议的过程，这种判决照理应是基于法律和争议的理性考虑，而不仅仅是基于针对个人的考虑而做出的。这些定义有严重的缺陷，但若我们从以下几点去理解它们，它们可能会服务于我们：（1）司法程序解决的不是抽象问题或假想情形，而是真实的当事人之间的客观存在的纠纷；（2）这些纠纷将会由社会的强制力直接解决；（3）这些解决程序不是随意设定的，而是遵循了一些被普遍使用的程序标准；（4）这些标准被用于遵循某些固定原则的诉讼，而这些固定原则在人们称为程序法的一套规则中都有详细的描述。

2. ： They tell or attempt to tell him what the lawyer may and may not do, and they afford the means by which the lawyer can bring about, or attempt to bring about, the results sought.

译：程序法规则对诉讼律师来说既是规范性法规又是授权性法规。它试图告 诉大家律师可能做什么、不可能做什么，告诉大家律师可以带来的意义，或者试图带来你寻求的答案。

3.A element of the American procedure far resolving legal controversies is the adversary system, which is the characteristic form of trial procedure in common law countries, in civil as well as criminal cases. shaping the issues, and for producing evidence rests almost entirely upon the parties. The court takes almost no active part. It does not do its own investigating. It rarely even asks a question. Most often it is only responsible for guiding the proceeding according to certain procedural rules and for making decisions on questions of law that arise. This system is to be contrasted with what is generally called the inquisitorial system, which is used in countries of the civil law tradition such as France and Germany. In the inquisitorial system of trial, the judge applies the law and finds the facts by his own active investigation and inquiries at trial.

译：美国法律争议解决的程序有一个与众不同之处，就是抗辩制（对抗制）， 这种制度也是普通法系国家在民事和形式案件审判中的程序的特征。其基本特征是由法官或法官与陪审团根据双方辩护人所提出的证据认定事实、适用法律。在这种制度下的庭审程序中，提起诉讼，蜀定争议以及出示证据都几乎完全是争议当事人的责任。法官对此是消极被动的，他们不主动调查，甚至不主动提问。法官最常做的是谨遵程序法的规定引导法庭按程序进行，据此作出当事人提出的法律问题的裁判。这一制度是与通常我们所说的纠问制相对的，纠问制主要被用于诸如发过、德国的大陆法系国家。在纠问制下的庭审中，法官通过其积极主动的调查和询问后发现证据、适用法律。

4.Under the adversary system, the scope of the lawyer's power and responsibility is wide.It is the lawyer who makes the initial and usually final decisions as to choice of court, size of claim, nature of claim stated, parties, extent and kind of , mode of trial （whether jury or non-jury）, settlement offers, extent and kind of proofs, style of presentation and argument, and, within limits, speed and vigor of presentation.The trials are largely produced and directed by the lawyers. They supply the actors and the script, through the witnesses called and the testimony elicited by Judges are called on to only occasionally and then briefly, to ensure that all 译：在抗辩制下，律师的权利和义务范围广。律师从开始，通常情况下到最 后都能决定选择哪个法院、索赔的数额大小、索赔的法律依据、当事人、庭前调查的范围和类型、庭审的模式（有无陪审团）、赔偿金、证据的范围和类型、陈述和抗辩的风格并在一定限度上控制陈述的语速和情绪（原意为活力）。庭审很大程度上被律师导演和控制节奏。他们提供演员和剧本，通过直接质证和交叉质证询问证人、引出其证词。法官只会偶尔地、短暂地进行干预以确保所有正当司法程序条款中的程序保障和达到基本的正义。他们对证据的可采信性进行裁决，但是这是一种消极作用，时候摈弃不可靠的证据而非提供作为案件依据的事实。

5.The reasons for the prevalence of the adversary system are manifold, but four are certainly among the most important：（1）It is believed that a truer decision will be reached as the result of a contest directed by naturallywill be most effective inseeking, discovering, and presenting the materials which will reveal the strength of his own case and the weakness of his adversary's case ；（2）The parties, who after all are the persons principally interested in the resolution of the controversy, should bear the major burden of the time, energy and costs required；（34）Since law has replaced resort to force that characterized primitive ages, the human instinct to do battle is better satisfied by a means of settling disputes that are very much in the hands of the parties.

译：抗辩制盛行的原因有很多方面，但最重要的四个原因如下：（1）我们 相信正确的判决是有利害关系的当事人互相竞争的结果。一个有利害关系的当事人将会有效率地寻求、发现并呈现其准备的材料，这些材料将会为他自己的诉求提供有力支撑并且削弱抗辩对方的诉求。（2）对争议的解决非常关心的当事人应该对时间的损耗、能力和成本的消耗负主要责任；（3）尽管在不需要作出最终决定的时候不偏不倚的调查可能更合适，但人们认为诉讼必须对“是与否”的问题作出决定，而树立对立面是这种决定更为简单。（4）因此求助于法律代替了原始时期的求助于武力，人类战斗的本能被解决争端所满足, 这十分符合双方当事人的意愿。

6.Contrasted with the methods of scientific or historical research, this system of finding answers to legal controversies seems sometimes unsatisfactory. .Critics of the adversary system point out that it tends to reduce litigation to a costly game, in which the lawyers become the principal players and the outcome will turn on their skills rather than the justice or true merits of the case. In recent times there has been a trend toward increasing the affirmative or active functions of the court that reflects the larger trend away from the "sporting" or "game" theory of litigation. Nonetheless, it cannot be questioned that in the United States the primary responsibility and control overalmost all phases of the judicial process continue to reside in the parties. Full understanding of the American legal procedure will require our constant attention to the existence of the adversary system as well as critical analysis of its shortcomings.

译：与科学和历史研究方法形成鲜明对照，这种法律争端解决的系统似乎不 太尽如人意。抗辩制下胜诉往往不取决于案件本身的实体问题而取决于其他因素，想到这点，人们便更有理由对这种是非选择作出最终结论。抗辩制的批判者指出，抗辩制趋向于将诉讼变成昂贵的游戏而使诉讼减少，律师将成为诉讼最重要的角色，诉讼的结果取决于律师的经验技巧而非争议和案件涉及的实体问题。近来，法院出现了越来越多值得肯定与积极的机制，反映出博弈论这种诉讼理论发展起来的大趋势。尽管如此，不可否认在美国，司法程序中几乎所有的首要责任和控制权都归属于当事人。全方位地理解美国司法程序将会不断提醒我们注意抗辩制的存在和其批判学说的不足。

7.There is but one test of a good system of procedure：Does it tend to the just and efficient determination of legal controversies.In this connection we must understand one thing： Despite the fact that this unit is only an introduction to the American legal system, we are not to assume that our function here is simply to digest uncriticallywhat we learn from this unit. But while doing so； keep in mind that many, diverse, and complex are the aspects of both justice and efficiency.11

译：有且仅有一个测试一个程序体制是否良好的标准：它是否能公正和有效 地判定法律纠纷。在这一点上我们必须明白一件事：尽管事实上这个单元我们介绍是对美国法律体系的介绍，我们不能假设我们的功能只是简单的、不鉴别和批判地吸收我们从本课学到的内容。对我们所学的每一条规则、每一种方式和每一个原则进行审视，进行“冷峻的酸处理”，这本就是学习过程的一部分。但当我们这样做的同时，要记住公平与正义的面貌都是多样和复杂的。