一个推销员的美国梦--[推销员之死]中威利·洛曼形象分析
河北师范大学硕士学位论文
一个推销员的美国梦——《推销员之死》中威利·洛曼形象分
析
姓名:路荣芬申请学位级别:硕士专业:英语语言文学指导教师:胡荫桐
20030818
摘要
《推销员之死》发表于1949年,是阿瑟・米勒最成功的剧作,曾获普利策奖和纽约剧评家奖,被公认为是二战后美国的重要剧作之一。《推销员之死》的主人公威
利・洛曼笃信依靠个人魅力和不懈的努力便可获得成功,可是他为老板辛劳一生竞在年老时被无理解雇。他走投无路,终于撞车自尽。这是一个普通美国人被“人人都能
成功”的梦想所戕害的悲剧,具有深刻的社会意义。本文立足于作品本身,通过对老推销员威利・洛曼生命最后二十四小时里心理活动和性格发展的描述,向我们揭示了美国梦的真谛。
论文共分三大部分,第一部分引言,主要是介绍梳理评论家对《推销员之死》及其作者的各种评论,米勒本人的戏剧理论,由此展示了这部普通人悲剧多年来屡演不
衰的艺术感染力。第二部分是论文的主题,共分三章,第一章从威利・洛曼梦想儿子的远大前程、自己成为一名出色的推销员以及回归自然三方面入手,展示出一个生活
在梦想与幻觉中的威利。洛曼。第二章中,威利与比夫、过去与现在、自然与社会这几组对比在音乐、灯光、布景等舞台表现手法的映衬下,突出表现了威利的迷惘;另外,房子、汽车的象征意义也有助于突出威利的矛盾心情。第j:章分析了经历失业、失去自尊等等种种打击之后的威利面对现实作出的最后决定,既牺牲自己_:={乏换取儿予的远大前程。第三部分是结论,综合前三章的分析得出:威利的处世哲学在现实社会中行不通,即只靠个人魅力不能赢得天下。
关键词:美国梦迷惘破灭悲剧普通人
ABSTRACT
Producedinl949,Deathwell
as
ofaSalesman.Miller’Smasterpiece,wonthePulitzerPrize
one
as
theNewYorkDramaCriticsAward.Itisgenerallybelievedtobe
ofthemost
ofthetitle,
importantAmericanplaysafterWorldbelieves
onecan
WarII.WillyLoman,thesalesman
getaheadbypersonalattractivenessandunremittingefforts,butheisfired
no
unreasonablyafterhehasworked34yearsforthecompany.Hehascrashesthe
car
wayOUt,finally
theold
anddies.Thisthesis,based
on
thestudyofthe
novel,analyzes,from
salesman’Sinneractivitiesduringhislasttwenty—fourhours,revealsthetragedyofthecommonpeopleandthe
essence
oftheAmericandream.
Thethesisiscomposedofthreeparts.PanIistheintroduction.introducingcritical
responsetothebook,Miller‘Sowndramatictheoryandtheartisticappealoftheplay.PartII,thebodyofthethesis.includesthreechapters.ChapterOneshows
wholivesinmassive
I.ISa
WillyLoman
dreams(a
brightfutureforhisson、himself
asa
successfulsalesman
and
thebeautyofnature).ChapterTwoismainlydevotedtostress
Willy’Sconfusion.
versus
Three
contrasts(Willy
versus
Biff、past
versus
present、nature
society),
accompaniedwiththedramaticdevices(music、lighting、setting,etc)areservedtostrenghthenWilly’Sconfusedminds.Thehouseandcar,withtheirsymbolicmeanings,alsohighlightthetheme.ChapterThreefocusesexperiencingfinal
a
On
thedisillusionmentofWilly’SdreamsAfter
seriesoffatalanacks(unemployment、identitylost,etc),Willymakeshis
sacrificehisownlifeforBiff’Sbrightfuture.PartIII.theconclusion、
wayoflifewon’tworkinthesociety.that
THEDA:Y.
decision--to
Willy’S
concludes
is—PERSONALITY
DOES
NOTAI^VAYS
WIN
Keywords:
Americandreamconfusion
disillusionment
tragedy
commonpeople
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Inthe
to
course
ofstudyingArthurMillm’andwritingthisessay,Ihavebeenmostindebted
a
ProfessorHuYintong,mysupervisoLtowhommygratitudeiseverlasting.Ibenefited
lotfromhisstimulatinglectures,insightfuladvice,andinvaluableguidance
Iamalso
grateful
to
himforhislendingmehis
oven
books
on
ArthurMiller.Withouthishelp,this
thesiswouldnotbecomewhatitiS
SpecialthanksshouldbeextendedtoProfessorGuo
Qunying,LiZhengshuan,Ji
ShengleiandDuanXiaoyingfortheirstimulatinglecturesandvaluablesuggestions.Likeallstudentsofliterature,mygratitudealsogoesto
manycriticswhowrote
on
this
subjectin
thelastcentury.Theespeciallyusefulbookshavebeenlistedinthe
bibliography.
Introduc“on
Producedin1949,Death
ofaSalesman,Miller’S
a
thirdfather-and—sonswork,was
asa
acclaimedbythecriticsandwon
Itis
PulitzerPrize
at
as
wellDramaCritics‘CricleAward.
Miller’Smostsuccessfulattemptcreatingindividualcharacterswithuniversal
not
significance.Thebestlineshavebecomefamiliarandoft-usedquotations
becausethey
soundlikeeverydayspeechbutbecausetheyare“poeticrealism”:“Attentionmustbepaid.…’He’Sliked,buthe’SmanhastoadduptOfirstappeared
on
not—wellliked,”“Amancan’tgo
can’t
Out
thewayhe
nota
calTle
in…a
something.…‘Amanwho
handletoolsis
man”Whenhe
theAmerican
stage,WillyLomanwasrecognized
asa
kindofAmerican
Everyman--a
universalsymbolmaderealbyhundredsofminutely'observeddetailsof
speech,mannerandpsychology
familyandwhose
Willyis
a
modemEveryman,aworkingmanwhose
return
jobcomefirst;hewillgivehisallforthemandin
seeksloveand
respect,TheEverymanelementisobviousenough.Tolocatethedream-elementsoftheplayalsorequires
no
great
effort,WillyLoman’Sdreams
a
occupyhalftheplay;they
are
the
dreamsofalltheworld,thedreamsof
pastguilt.Duringthedream
happy,hopefulpastandtheinescapabledreamof
unabletOtelltruthfromfantasy',the
a
sequences,Willyseems
presentfromthepastHeloseshimselfinhisrecollections,interrupting
hisneighborCharley'tOaddresstheabsentBen,losingall
sense
conversationwith
a
ofthepresentin
man’s
roomwhileherecallshispastexposurebyhis
certifiedbytheholdhisrecollectionshavedistortion
in
son
Willyissick;hismentalbreakdownis
on
himandbythegreatamountofobvious
Everyman
not
assures
US
themHis
are
identificationwith
that,as
inother
Expressionistplays,we
InDeath
countenance
examiningthemalady
ofanindividualbutofsociety
a
ofa
SalesmanMillersays,he“aimedtomake
playwiththeveritable
a
oflife
To
make
one
themany.asinlife,SOthat‘society‘is
power
sea
and
a
mysteryofcustomandinsidethemanandsurroundinghim,asthefishisinthe
sea
andthe
uses
insidethefish.hisbirthplaceandburialground,promiseandthreat”.1Milleroften
tO
thefish-wateranology
explain
that
a
serioustreatmenther
as
of
a
human
beingmust
encompassthesocietythatsurroundshim
or
theforcethathasconditionedthoughtS.
Introduc“on
Producedin1949,Death
ofaSalesman,Miller’S
a
thirdfather-and—sonswork,was
asa
acclaimedbythecriticsandwon
Itis
PulitzerPrize
at
as
wellDramaCritics‘CricleAward.
Miller’Smostsuccessfulattemptcreatingindividualcharacterswithuniversal
not
significance.Thebestlineshavebecomefamiliarandoft-usedquotations
becausethey
soundlikeeverydayspeechbutbecausetheyare“poeticrealism”:“Attentionmustbepaid.…’He’Sliked,buthe’SmanhastoadduptOfirstappeared
on
not—wellliked,”“Amancan’tgo
can’t
Out
thewayhe
nota
calTle
in…a
something.…‘Amanwho
handletoolsis
man”Whenhe
theAmerican
stage,WillyLomanwasrecognized
asa
kindofAmerican
Everyman--a
universalsymbolmaderealbyhundredsofminutely'observeddetailsof
speech,mannerandpsychology
familyandwhose
Willyis
a
modemEveryman,aworkingmanwhose
return
jobcomefirst;hewillgivehisallforthemandin
seeksloveand
respect,TheEverymanelementisobviousenough.Tolocatethedream-elementsoftheplayalsorequires
no
great
effort,WillyLoman’Sdreams
a
occupyhalftheplay;they
are
the
dreamsofalltheworld,thedreamsof
pastguilt.Duringthedream
happy,hopefulpastandtheinescapabledreamof
unabletOtelltruthfromfantasy',the
a
sequences,Willyseems
presentfromthepastHeloseshimselfinhisrecollections,interrupting
hisneighborCharley'tOaddresstheabsentBen,losingall
sense
conversationwith
a
ofthepresentin
man’s
roomwhileherecallshispastexposurebyhis
certifiedbytheholdhisrecollectionshavedistortion
in
son
Willyissick;hismentalbreakdownis
on
himandbythegreatamountofobvious
Everyman
not
assures
US
themHis
are
identificationwith
that,as
inother
Expressionistplays,we
InDeath
countenance
examiningthemalady
ofanindividualbutofsociety
a
ofa
SalesmanMillersays,he“aimedtomake
playwiththeveritable
a
oflife
To
make
one
themany.asinlife,SOthat‘society‘is
power
sea
and
a
mysteryofcustomandinsidethemanandsurroundinghim,asthefishisinthe
sea
andthe
uses
insidethefish.hisbirthplaceandburialground,promiseandthreat”.1Milleroften
tO
thefish-wateranology
explain
that
a
serioustreatmenther
as
of
a
human
beingmust
encompassthesocietythatsurroundshim
or
theforcethathasconditionedthoughtS.
culture.attitude,andvalues.Thedilemmaofmodemmaninrelationtohisfamilyand
workis
a
typicalthemeofArthurMiller’S
SO
plays.Miller
isgenerallyregarded
as“a
wxiter
whoseplayshaveproved
responsive
to
theshiftingpressureofthesocialworldand
source
whosecharactersembodythatdesperatedesirefordignityandmeaningwhichisthe
oftheirwaywardenergy,theiraffectingironyandtheirbaffledhumanity.”2oftenin
a
What
occurs
Millerplayisthattheherofindshimselfunder
a
pressurefromhissociety'andits
ethics,triesinvaintoextricatehimselffromthephysicalandspiritualquandaryintowhich
hehasfallenandfindsreleaseonlyindeath,oftenintheformofactualTheworldisharsh.Thereislittle
orno
or
virtualsuicide.
choice
on
thepartofthehero.Eitherhesubmitsto
ineither
case.
theimpossibledemandsofsociety.or
krejectsthem.Hedies
constant
Anotheraxisisthefamily,asinMiller’Sindividual,society,andthefamily:“Howmay
a
themethatencompassesthe
a
manmakeoftheoutsideworld
home?
Howandinwhatwaysmusthestruggle,whatmusthestrivetochangeandovercome
withinhimselfandoutsidehimselfifheis
ease
to
findthesafety,thesurroundingsoflove,the
ofsoul,the
sense
ofidentityandhonorwhich,evidently,allmenhaveconnectedin
theirmemorieswiththeideaoffamilY?‘’3
ItisworthwhiletorememberArthurMiller’Scommentsinhis1956essay,“TheFamily
inModernDrama.”Allplayswecallserious.hewrote,areultimatelyconcernedwithsome
aspectof
a
singleproblem:
Howmay
anlan
makeoftheoutsideworld
a
home?IfthestruggleinDeathf)f
n
SMesmanweresimplybetweenfatherandson如rrecognitionandforgivenessitwoulddiminishinimportanceButwhenitextendsitselfoutofthefamilycircleandintosociety',itbroachesthosequestionsofsocialstatus,socialhonorandrecognition,whichexpanditsvisionandliftit
out&themerely
particulartowardthefateofthegeneralityofmen
4
Deatho/dSalesmanis
。‘phony’’as
as
a
sadversionoftheAmerican
dream.Will),Loman,is
as
as
MarkTwain’SColonelSellersbutmorehard-workingandhonest;heis
as
tragic
Fitzgerald’SGreatOatsbybutnot
successfuland‘。great“Thoughliving“in
never
a
rough
world—wheremodern
civil!zationissuffocating,Willy
2
seems
to
beawareofthatand
keeps
on
dreamingof
success
andlivinginillusionsandlies・
USATodaysaidthat:
DirectorRobertFallsintroducessomesubtlerevisionism:There‘Snothingwrongwith
theAmericandream,onlywiththose,likeWillyLoman,who
are
na'fve
enough
to
thinkitsocialist
willcometothem…thus.hiswife’Sfamous‘attentionmustbepaid’speechisless
tractthanasermononunconditional
a
love:JustbecauseLomanwaslow
on
thecapitalistfood
chaindoesn’tmeanhe’Slessof
a
person(Stearns).3
ForhisDeath
ofasalesman
asa
moderntragedyofAmericanEveryman,Millersaid
in
an
interviewwithHarryRafsky
on
theCanadianBroadcastingCompany'networkin
are
1979,"Theywereweeping,becausethecentralmatrixofthisplayis...whatmostpeopleupagainstintheirlives...Theywereseeingthemselves,notbecause
Willyis
a
salesman,
bmthesituationinwhichhestoodand
tO
whichhewasreacting,andwhichwasreacting
againsthim,wasprobablythecentralsituationofcontemporarycivilization.ItisthatWE
are
strugglingwithforcesthat
are
fargreaterthanwe
can
handle,with
no
equipment
tO
makeanythingmeananything.”Salesman’Ssuccess,therefore,liesinMiller’Sabilitytofind
a
form—that
notonlyrevealsthe
on
innerworkingsofWillyLoman’Sdisorientedmind.
butthatalsocomments
constant
theparadoxicalconditionthatdefineshumanexistence:the
strugglewithintheindividualbetweenself
unconsc
,
and
society,rightandV~TOng,loveand
oyandsorrow,workand
hatred,consciousnessand
andfailuresSUCCESSsensuoi,j,
play,pastandpresent,lifeanddeath.
GeorgeKemodle(aninstructorofEnglishanddramaticartsatnumerousuniversities;
authorofInvitationto
Theatre(1967,1971);translatorand
cannot
producerofnumerousMoliere
on
plays)arguesthatwhiletragedytraditionally
Salesmanstillworks.So,wereachDeathhisdream.Millersetsouttowrite
a
focus
theordinary,man.Death
a
ofa
and
ofa
Salesman,atragicstudyof
a
little
man
tragedy,wellawarethattragedyishighandnoble
thing,athingofdignityandimportanceSeventeendaysafterDeathofa
Salesmanopened
inNewYork,MillerpublishedinTheNeu’YorkTimes”TragedyandtheCommonMan’。Thearticlearguesthat
a
commonman
can
be
a
tragicheroand,thus,seemsmeant,though
Willy
is
not
named,toclaimtragic
stature
forWilly.The“tragicfeeling,”Millercontends,
3
isreadytolaydown
dependsnotuponthehero’Srankbut“isevoked”by“acharacterwho
hislife,ifneedbe,to
tO
secureone
thing~his
sense
ofpersonaldignity.”HereMillerseems
sense
writeofWilly,whodoeslaydownhislifeforhis
a
ofdignity,mistakenthoughitis.
WillyLomanindeedmakeshimselftragicheroofsonsbyhisabundantcapacityfor
sufferinginthepresentaction;byhisfineresentmentofslights,byhisbaRleforself-
respect.andbyhisrefusaltosurrenderallexpectationsoftriumphfor,andthrough,his
son
ThisistheattractionandgloryofWillyLoman,andthislimitlesshopeinthefaceof
ofa
hopelessnessisalsowhatultimatelydefinesthetragicspiritofMiller’SvisioninDeath
&gesman
ChapterOne
A
MallofMassiveDreams
Death
ofa
Salesmanpresents
a
matrixofenablingfablesthatdefinethemythofthe
Americandream.Indeed,mosttheatergoersassumethattheprinciplesWillyLoman
values--initiative,hard
competition,the
work,family,freedom,consumerism,economic
salvation,
so
frontier,self--sufficiency,public
culturalpoetics
recognition,personalfulfillment,and
as
on--animateAmerican
dreams
as
Miller’splayis
muchaboutthesalesman’s
use
abouthisdeath,butdeathliesimminentin
to
Willy’sdreams.To
Miller’swords
salesmanwith
fromthenewprefacehisfeet
on
the50‘“anniversaryeditionofthe
play:“Willyis
a
thesubwaystairs
a
andhisheadinthe
stars.”6
Ratherthan
tragedyoffailure,astheplayisoftendescribed,Death
ofa
Salesman
dramatizesthefailureofadream.Willyconvinceshimselfthatheisthecrucialsalesmanin
NewEngland,thatheishandsome,alovinghusbandanddevotedfather,andthathis
are
SODS
abletolickthecivilizedworld
are
Alltheseconceptionsare,ofcourse,delusions,but,
unfortunately,they
believed
to
somedegreebyallthefamilymembers.Their
motivationinbelivingthesefantasiesismadeclearwhenbothHappyandLindawarnBiff
to
tellhisfatherwhathewantstohear,notwhathasactuallyhappened.HappyandLinda,
to
likeBifl;areless
beblamedthanWilly,foritisWillywhohasforcedhisfamily
are
to
play
thepartsthathehasdesignedforthem.They
reality.
allcharactersin
a
dream,Willy’sdreamof
1HisDreamsofa“Big’’FutureforHisChildren
Willyisdrab
andaverage;thesurest
guaranteeofhisdrabnessisinhiscommitment
products,and
is
at
even
to
thestandardideals,thestandardcommercialfidelitytothegreatAmericandreamof
thestandardlanguageHis
Success
theveryheartoftheplay.Hebelieves
Success
inthisdreaminitssimplest,itsfinalformHebelievesthat
istherewardofmaking
friendsandinfluencing
people--being
impressive,beingpersuasive,beingwellliked.One
success
becomessuccessfulbybeingconfident,bythinkingof
andtherefore
success
isall
Willyknows,allhebelieves.
5
Wilb‘Shopes
to
areso
him
closelyassociatedwithhissons,especiallyBiffthathewants
one
succeed、Hemakesthembelievethatthe3.'areborntobenumber
a
Biffwasthe
footballsquadandwasplayinginofschoolhiscaptainhighpopular
To
championshipgame
Willy
thegamebecomes
a
symbolfor
SklCCeSS
inthefuture.Furthermore,Biffthenhad
excellentprospects
Threeuniversitiesweremakingoverturesaboutathleticscholarships
asure
TheiryouthfulnessappearstOhimtobe
indicationofexceptionalqualities,their
unwillingness
tO
workhardtobethenaturalcontemptofthebrilliantfortheplodding.Biff
tO
could,according
Willy,become
a
goodsalesman,because,inWilly’s
eyes,hehasallthe
qualitiesforsuccess,Hehadbeenpopularinschoolandhastheright
nex,er
sort
ofpersonality.He
tiresofsaying,"Belikedandyouwill
never
want.”Itisimportantfor
success,Willy
saysrepeatedlytohissons.notonly,tobeliked.buttObe“well—liked."Heconvinces
himselfandhis
encourages
sons
that
Success
is
a
productofbeingwell-liked,but
at
thesametimehe
he
never
competitive
and
even
tmlawful
behaviour.Hefails
because
understandstheinconsistencyinhisbeliefs
and
thathisdesirefortheemotionalsecurityof
a
popularityisatoddswiththerealitiesoftheprofessionhehasenteredPainting
ofthetrax’elingsalesmanforhis
portrait
tO
SOILS,Willy
boastsofhissuccesses:“I
tO
never
havewait
inline
toseea
buyer’Willy'Loman
assures
ishere!’That‘Sallthey'have
in
know,and1goright
in
through.”HeBoston.”The
his
sons;“Knocked’emcold
Providence,slau曲tered’em
Willyofthefirst
are
partofthisreverieisfullofhimselfandhisboys;aliis
ona
well—hisSons
Will)"’S
welllikedand.1ikehimself,willsucceed
tO
smile.
nor
one
desireis
shineinhis
son’S
eyesHedoesnotknowhimself
doeshe
He
understandhisSOnS.Hedoesnotrealizethatheislargelyresponsiblefortheirfailure
seetns
unabletorememberforIongthatBiffis
a
matureman,supposedly'capableof
as
makinghisowndecisions.HehasthesameattitudetowardsBiffinthepresent
tO
heused
ha、’einthepast.whenhecouldplaytheroleofthefather・figuresuccessfidlyCharley
can
pointsOUt.“Theonlythingyougotinthisworldiswhatyou
isthatyou
area
sell.Andthefunnything
salesman.andyOUdon’tknowthat”HetellsWillytoletBiffgo.andwhen
to
Willy’hints
at
suicideinorder
leaveBiffhislifeinsurancemoney",Charleyisqaick
to
say'
’’nobody‘Sworthnothin’dead.Charleyisfullofgoodadvice,but
Willybarely
hearshim.
unwilling
tO
relinquishanypartofhisdreamanddeterminedagainsteveryoddtomakeit
6
COme
true.
Evenafterhehaslosthisregainingsuch
a
a
job,Willy
stilltakesconsolationinthepossibilityofBiff
thatBiff
to
never
lucrativepositionwithBill
wasmerely
a
Oliver.Will)hasforgotten
didhave
not
p。sition—he
shippingclerk.Willydoesnotlisten
Biff:heis
interestedinthetruth,merelyinconfirmingwhathesuspectsandhopesBifftobe:heasks
andexpectstobetoldthatOlivergavehima-warmwelcome,thathegavehimdrinks,thatheacceptedtheideaswhichBiffhad.AsBiffsays:“Dad,you’renotlettingmetellyouwhat
1wanttotell
you."BiffistryingtoimpressrealityuponWilly,butWillyissimply
sons
interestedinthedream.Andthetwomediocre
a
growintocrudeuneducatedfellowsat
loss
to
definetheirowninadequacy.
Inthefinalconfrontationbetweenthetwomen,Biffcannotmakehisfatherfacethe
truth.Willy
hastoomuchemotionalcapitaltiedupinhisdreamsofBiff’smagnificence,
to
andheprefers
sacrificehisliferatherthanhisillusionButhisattemptfailsif
Success
is
measuredfinancially,becausetheinsurancecompanyprobablywillnotpay.But,moresignificant,eveniftheinsurancecompanywere
to
pay
on
the
policy,Willy
at
haslearned
nothingandgainsnothingforhisboys.AsBiffsaysofhisfatherthewrongdreams
verysystemthat
theplay’send,“Hehad
All,all,wrong.’’Willy
wouldhaveBiffandHappyintegratedintothe
itispossible
a
destroyedhim.Inaddition,while
to
saythat
Biff’s
acceptanceofhimselfandhisownplaceintheworldindicates
not
success,thisgro、 ̄lhdoes
resultfromanyconsciousactionbyWilly.Rather,Bifflearnsthroulgh
Willy’s
self-destruction.
Willyhaslostthespacewhichheneedsforhis
a
dreamsto
assumeanyreality,forhis
identitytoresisttheimpressofpublicworldwhichrecognizesonlyrole.Forcedat
an
momentstoconcedehisfailure,hisowninabilitytomouldhimselfintohehasalso
a
acceptable
to
form,
10
fallback
on
his
sons
to
fulfillthedreamshehimselfhasfailed
realizeBiffis
livingreminderofWilly’sfailure
BiffrepresentsthegreatAmericandreamgone
wrong.Hecouldhaverecapturedthepioneerspiritofhisgrandfather,theitinerantinventor,buthehasbeenfatallyinfectedby
Willy’svalues.AlthoughBiffrecognizes
hisfather
a
asa
fake,healsoneeds
to
recognizethathe,too,inembracinghisfather’sbeliefs,isalso
fake
TheclimaxoftheplayforBiffoccursinBillOliver’soffice,foritistherethatheisforced
7
to
recognizethefactthathehaslivedandbelievedthefantasythat
Willy
hascreatedofand
forhim.Biffhadlet
Willyshape
him
so
thathebecametheembodimentof
Willy'1sdream
ofparentalSuccess.ButBi正onsomelexel,realizedthisandhistheftshadbeenpathetic
attempts
to
breakthemoldofperfectionthat
are
Will)'’Smindhad
created.In
a
veryreal
sense
Willy
andBiff
morelikebrothersthanfatherandson.anditisBiffwhogrowsupfirst.
a
Will)',tObesure,hasbeen
greatlie,awalkingemptiness,abreathingdelusion.He
sons
gives,ineffect,onlyflawedideasanddesirestohis
WhateverWilly
saysbeforehe
an
drivesoffforthelasttime,itwasn’tmoney,thathegave
to
BiffWillygaveBiff
undyingtiesis
illusionand,perhaps,thepossibilityofhappiness.Thegrippingthingabout
Willy’S
thatitis
death
SO
hugeandhopeful.Itis
SO
pervasivelyAmerican.Hewillnotpartwithitunto
IIedieswithitandforit,andpartingisa11heknowsofheaven.Hedies
happy.
son’s
certainthathiswholelifewillbearthefruitofhis
greatness.Willyis
an
incurable
yea—sayenpaintingeverythingrosy,prophesyingempireanddominionfortheLomans,dab'
afterday'forhiswholelifefeedinghisego,breathinginthepromisesandlies.
IIHisDreamsofEstablishingHisOwnBusiness
in
Timebends,MillerrelateshowhebelieveshechosethenameLomanfrom
a
scene
a
subconsciousmemoryofinthefllin,TheTestament
ofDrMabuse.where
to
a
doomedcharactercries
out“Lohmarm.”_What
thenamereallymeant
never
mewas
a
terror—strickenmancallingintothevoidforhelpthatwillreadingsofDeath
come”7
to
Manycritical
heavyhanded
a
of
a
Salesmanconsider
WillyLoman’Sname
be
a
referenceto”Low‘man.”Foraudiences
today.Willy
Loman’Snamehasbecomeparlof
nationalvocabulary,allinstantlyrecognizablenamesynonymouswith
EveryPetson‘s
struggle
tOcross
borders--from
or
no
beingnameless,aninsignificantspeckintheuniverse
one’s
over
whichwehavelittle
control,toleaving
thumbprint
on
theworld
And,
interestingly,Willy‘Sideal,theoldsalesmanin
whosenamedenies‘’adime
a
greenslippers,iscalled“Dave
Singlema∥
dozen.”Singlemanissingular,unique.Heachieredthe
popularity
to
whichWillyaspiredThetwonamescontrast
Willy’S
actualexploitationand
thedignifiedindependencetowhichheaspired.Dave
Singlemanisthemodeluponwhom
Willybases
hisstandardsof
success
Thefamousstoryofthe
gentleman—salesmanshows
8
twothings:Singleman’slegendand
Willy‘sfailure
to
emulatehisidol-Thisearlyformof
ofpreindustrialenterprises・extractiveandinthesharesimagerypioneeringsalesmanship
Willyremembershisearly'ambition
himtowardthelifeof
a
to
seekhisfoauneinAlaskaandwhatredirected
salesman.
And1wagalmostdecidedtogo,whenlmet
a
salesmanintheParkerHouseHisname
wasDaveSinglemanAndhewaseight-fouryearsold,andhe’ddrummedmerchandisein
thirty.oae
states
AndoldDave.he’dgoup
tO
hisroom,y’understand,put
on
hisgreenvelvet
ever
sIippers—l’11
never
fo唱et—and
pickuphisphoneandcallthebuyers,andwithout
saw
l
leavinghisroom,attheageofeight—four,hemadehisliving.Andwhen
that,Irealized
thatsellingwasthegreatest
careera
mancouldwant.‘Causewhatcouldbemoresatisfying
or
thantobeabletogo,attheageofeight—four,intotwenty
a
thirtydifferentcities,andpickup
phone,andberememberedandlovedandhelpedby
SO
manydifferentpeople?6
ItisinHoward‘Sofficethat
Willyevokesthememoryofthe
greatsalesman,Dave
Singleman.Itishisdeath,narratedbyWill)',thatevokestheplay’Stitle:“Whenhe
died—and
bythewayhediedthedeathof
a
salesman,inhisgreenvelvetslippersinthe
smokeroftheNewYork,NewHavenandHartfort,goingintohundredsofsalesmenandbuyerswere
at
Boston--when
hedied,
hisfuneral.”Andthatisthekindoffimeral
Willy
envisionsforhimself.AsWillyplantsthegardentowardtheendofthesecondact,heimaginesthesuccess,thegloryofhisdeath:
Ben,thatfuneral
willbe
massive!They
wi|lcomefrom
Maine,Massachusetts.
Vermont,NewHampshire!Alltheold-timerswiththestrangelicense
plates--that
boywillbe
thunder-struck.Ben,becat.tsehe
never
realize出一IamknowntRhodeIsland,NewYork,New
see
Jersey~I
amknown,Ben,andhe’lI
a
itwithhiseyes
once
andfora11.He’11
see
whatI
am.Ben!He’Sinfor
shock.thatboy19
ItisSingleman’Slife,andmoreespecially'hisdeath,thatcometosymbolizewhat
Willythinkshe
wantsfor
himself.Willy’Sgoal,then,reiteratedinmany
9
guisesthroughout
the
course
oftheplay,istOachieve
asa
salesman;butperhapsmoreimportant,itismanydifferentpeople.‘’
a
tO
be
”rememberedandlovedandhelpedby
SO
MilleralmostcertainlyintendstheironyimpliedbyWill)'’Sinterestin
requires
110
jobthat
tO
n]ole
eflbrtthanliftingbusiness
which
a
phone.butthemoredreadfulironyrelates
Singleman‘s
the
interpretatin
of
Will>"derivesfrom
tO
example.What
Singleman’Sachievementrepresents
Willyis
a
demonstrationoftheCO-operativeand
benevolentnatureofcapitalism.Singleman’Sabilitytosellbyphoneatageeighty—fouris
proof
tO
Willy
thathewasrememberedandlovedandhelpedby
SO
manydifferent
people.ThisconclusionseemstobeconfirmedbySingleman’SfuneralwhichwasaRendedbyhundredsofsalesmanandbuyers.Singleman,inotherwords,representsfreeenterprise
with
a
humanface,anditispartofWilly’Stragedythathe
never
realizesthatsuch
a
system
doesnotexist
Inearliertimesandinoldworldcountries,identitywasestablishedmoreby
familynamethanbyaccomplishmentsMisguided,Willyattemptsnamein
dime
a
a
to
succeedbyhis
a
newworld.Hisprimitiveutterancetowardtheendofthe
play,‘。Iamnot
dozen!Iam
Willy
LomanandyouareBiffLoman!”is
a
fundamentalpleafor
significanceofindividualization,family,pride,andhonor.
Willy
wasindeed
a
victimofsociety,buthewasalso
a
consentingvictim,or
a
victim
ofhimself,becauseheacceptedthedebased
tothe
standardsofthe
acut
worldhesave.Hehasbowed
commondictumthat
a
businessmanisabove
a
carpenter,andputallofhisfaith
inpersonalpopularity
IIIHisDreamsoftheBeautyofNature
WillyLomanisintroducedimmediately
tO
thereader
as
someoneofdreams,massix,e
dreams,andsomeonewhofindshopeforthefutureinthosedreams.Partofhisdreamis
one
ofthebeautyofnature,incompletecontrast
tO
therealitiesofhismundaneexistence
Millerwas
so
influencedbyhisexperiencesinBrooklynthatthe
boroughbecamethe
primesettingforthreeofhis
Glass・InDeath
major
plays:Salesman,AViewFromtheBridge,andBroken
asan
ofaSalesman,WillyLoman’SidyllicmemoryofBrooklyn
a
unspoiled
wildernesscontrastswiththerealityof
post—WbrldWar
IItechnologicalculturewhich
0
hasboxedinhiswood.framedhouseThus.theplay
USeS
with“bricksandwindows,windowsandbricks’’
as
a
physicalgeography
a
metaphorforemotionaldislocation・Even
center
thoughWillyLomanis
travelingsalesman.the
ofhisphysicalworldisBrooklyn,
butmoreimportantlythecenterofhisfragileemotionalexistenceisBrooklyn.too——the
BrooklynofthepresentandtheBrooklynofthepast.Thus,for
Willy,Brooklynbecomes
theplaceofconflictbetweenrealityandfragmentationofexperience.
In
fact,fromearlyintheplay,Willy’SlamentfortheBrooklynofthepastis
inextricablytiedintohisconflictbetweenrealityandillusion.Intheveryfirstscene,Willy
complainsaboutthephysicalchangesinBrooklyncars.There’Snot
youcan’traise
a
over
theyears:“Thestreetislinedwith
breathoffreshairintheneighborhoodThegrassdon’tgrowant,'more,
inthebackyard.Theyshould’vehad
OUt
a
acarrot
lawagainstapartment
andIhungthe
houses.Rememberthosetwobeautifulelmstreesswingbetweenthem?”
Theseelm
any
trees
there?WhenBiff
existintheBrooklynof
tO
Willy’Spast,aBrooklynwhichdoesnotexist
more.Willyrefuses
acceptthesechanges,attemptingto
a
plantseeds
intheblueofthe
a
night
becausehedoesn’thave
thingintheground.Thechokedseedis
a
fairlyobvious
symbol:WillyLomanistrappedin
societywhichpreventshimestablishing
sonsas
anything
to
outlasthimself,ruiningthelivesofhis
well
as
his
O'nTI.When
the
Lomans
first
moved
to
Brooklyn,thereweresmallhousesandpleasantflowerandvegetablegardens
Thelightandairweregoodforthespirit,andtheincreasedhisselgrespect
chance
for
a
man
to
plantandbuild
CUt
Now,however,thebeautifulelmshavebeen
down,tall
apartmentbuildings,whichsignifythereality,surroundthesmallhome,andbyimplication.
thesmallman.He
canno
longergrowvegetables
or
smelltheflowers.Hefeelsstifled,
use
trapped.Slightlymoreabstract,yetstillrealistic,istheplay’S
of
treestO
symbolizethe
ruralwayoflifewhichmoderncommercialismischoking.Thelightinginvolvesthe
projectionofapattern
ofleaves
on
thestageduring
Willy'1Smental
retreatsfroln
thepresent
intothepast,thedensityoftheleavesindicatingtheextentofhiswithdrawalfromreality,andtheleavesthemselvesprovidingofthepast
a
symbolicreference
tO
themoreruralcircumstances
Will),’Senthusiasm
fortheoutdoorsandthecountrysideisalsoconnectedinhismind
II
withtheideaoftraveland
journeyingTheoutdoorsis
clearlyatoddswiththecompeting
aresure
dimensionsofthecity,andneitherWilly,Biff;andHappy
can
inwhichdimensionhe
bestachievetheAmericandream.WillyhaschosentheBusinessWorld.buthis
continuallongingforthe“lilacsandw'isteria‘’indicateshisregretandconfusionatthe
hasoftheidealreaIityofhischoice.Theideaoftravelisinseparablefromtheimageshefiguresfromhispast:thatofhisfatherdrivinghiswagonandteamofhorses
across
the
westernstates;ofBenglobetrottingbetweencontinents;andofDaveSinglemantraveling
inthesmokeroftheNewYork,NewHavenandHartfordline.Hisownlife,too,iSinseparablefromtravel,andthemaintenanceofthefamily
His
car
car
is
one
ofhis
major
concerns
isessentialtohimforhislivelihood,anditisalsotheinstrumentbywhichhe
to
chooses
bring
an
end
to
hislife.It‘Sthefirstthematicallysignificant
a
object
toappear
in
thedramatictextoftheplay,whenitismentionedin
context
thatforeshadowsthemanner
ofWilly’S
death
“Willy…has
never
realizedthathisdreamslead,but
cannever
are
dreams,andmayofferhimsomecomfort
forlhe1ifehehas
to
actuallybelived.‘”And,thepersonificationofthe
tO
Americandreamisalsocentral
character
to
theplay’Smeaningand
Willy.Inexplainingthe
cannot
ofWilly
can’t
to
membersoftheChinesecast,Millerpointedout:“He
bearreality.
andsincehe
domuchtochangeit.hekeepschanginghisideasofit.N013mustlook
towhat
beyondhisludicrousness
heisactuallyconfronting.Thereis
ever
a
nobility,infact,in
WillylSstruggleMaybeitcomesfromhisrefftsal
torelent,togiveup‘’”
ChapterTwoA
ManOf
Confusion
1ntheintroductiontohisCollectedPlays,Milleracknowledges
Thefirstimagethatoccufred
enonnous
tomewhichwas
toresultinDeath
ofa
Salesmanwas
an
face
to
theheightoftheprosceniumarchwhichwouldappearandthenopenup,theinsideof
a
andWewould
title.It
was
see
manlS
head.Infact,TheInside
inside
ofHis
Headwasthefirst
was
a
conceived
halfin
laughter,forthe
ofhishead
mass
of
contradictions.12
Willy
isconfusedabouthislifeandabouthimself,Hedoubtshimself,doubtstheskills
even
ofsalesmanshiphehadconvincedhimselfifhepossessed,and
hisvisionoftheAmericandream
doubtsthevalidityofwebofthesethematic
Will),Loman
succeedin
a
struggleswithin
a
dichotomies.Hehasattempted
to
a
worldcontradictorytohisvaluesand
Success
interestsHeyearnsforvalidationby
system
whichdefines
according
to
sales
figures,asubstantialincome,andsocialprestige,yetwhatheenjoysmostisworkingwith
are
hishandsandbeingwithhisfamily.Willy’SprofessionalaspirationsdesiretogainhisHeillustrates
a
predicteduponhis
son’S
respect,butitispreciselythoseaspirationswhichdestroyhisfamily
basicconfusionthroughhisfrequent
self-contradictions--about
theworth
ofautomobiles,refrigerators,and
response
to
whippedcheese;abouttheappropriateprofessional
appearance.Ben’S
whistling,banterandjoking,andphysical
appanion
toturn
indicatesthat,atleastsubconsciously,Willydoubtsthehisbrotherdown
whenhesaysof
correctness
ofhisdecision
sense
andremaininNewYork.BiffunderscoresWilly’SWilly,“He
on
a
never
ofconfusion
knewwhohewas.”Willy,it
can
can
besaid,lacksthis
self-awarenessalso
morefundamentallevel.He
a
barelyrememberhisfather;his
mother,ashetellsBen,"diedlongtimeago.’’
a
Eachcharacteressentiallyexpressesdifferentpartof
Willy’Spersonality
Lindastirs
hisguiltandprickshisconsciencewithherloyality,devotion,andaffection;Charley’S
13
conlmon
~
sense
andpracticalitypullWillytoward
‘
an
honestconfrontationwithhissituation
’
,
,
,
,
‘
,,,
,
o帅
S0n§
.Af!f
.
!
,
T
’
,
),
●
.in
Ve
’
,
.
~‘
,
_
down
,
腑”
’
奶th
,
ne
’
.
’
r
l
,
aS
,
,
,
j.
,
,
’
,
V
4
toclaimthatthey
degreeofmutualaffectionandconcern.Forstrappinghighschoolboys
missedtheirfathereveryminutehewasawayinvolveseitherexaggeration
unusual
ora
somewhat
relationship.AndWilly,inturn.clearlymadethem,andespeciallyBit't.his
primaryinterest.Above
all,Willy
wasthenidolizedbybothhisboys,andpeaceand
harmonyreignedinthefamily.
Biff’Sfailureinmathisshatteredin
Bostonhotel
a
a
watershed
event
intheplay.Biff’Simageof
Willyis
a
single,horrifyingmomentwhenhediscovers
is
a
Willy
with
a
womanin
room.Willy
godwhodecaysbeforetheboy’Seyes,adecaystrikingly'
showninBiff’Scollapseafterhefindshisfather’Sadultery.Thefatherhasbeensexlessinbeinggodlike,andthisimageisnowdestroyed.Biff
refusestoretake
a
mathematics
accessto
a
examination,therebyabandoninghischanceofreachinguniversityandhisbettercareer.Andhesinksintothe
a
disillusionmentfromwhichhe
never
recovers,destroying
drean3,sofbothfather
and
son.
EversincetheBoston
affair,Biff
andWilly’SrelationshipisbedeviledbyguiltHe
tellsBernard,“There’SsomethingIdon’tunderstandaboutit.Hislifeendedafterthat
EbbetsFieldgame.Fromtheageoffifteennothinggood
ever
happenedtOhim.’’Although
Willyshies
awayfromremembering
SO
painful
an
episode,heknowsinhisheartthatthe
sense
Bostonaffairlefttheboybitterlydisillusioned.FeelingsomeaIlofBiff’Slater
ofguih,Willyfearsthat
difficultiesmayhavebeenreallyattempts
orto
to
getrevenge
Unableto
reshapethememoryoftheBostonaffairinstead
his
son
acknowledgeitsdevastatingeffects,Willy'
argument,repeatedly
accuses
blamesBiffforhistestybehaviorand,intheirfinal
ofbeing
spiteful.
cannot
But
Biffequallyfeels
guiltybecauseherecognizes
to
a
responsibilitywhichhe
fulfill,theresponsibility
redeemWilly’semptylife.Biff
alsoplainlyhates
pressures
hasfailed,inotherwords,mainlyto‘‘spite”Willy.IfBifflovesWilly,he
to
him.BiffandWillyremainbewilderedformostoftheplay,unable
at
analysethe
work
on
them,unableinparticulartoconfess
tO
theguilt,theloveandthehatethat
connect
and
dMde
them.
are
Itisevidentthatrelations
tense
anduneasybetweenfatherandson.Remembering
thesmilinglivelyyoungsterBiffusedtO
be,Willy
isdisgustedwiththethin).,一four-year.old
moodydrifter.Bifffluctuatesbetweencityandcountry,betweencivilizationandthewild.
15
Helovestheopenairandwork
on
farmsoutwest,butbelieveshemust
return
home
becauseheis“notgettinganywhere.“Yet,whenhereturns,hetellsHappy,’‘Andnow,Igethere.andIdon’tknowwhatmy
tO
dowithmyselfiI'vealwaysmadeit
tO
a
pointofnotwasting
life.”Willydoeswant
a
to
helpBiff.SohepromisesLinda
tO
holdhistemper,andtryto
findtheyouth
selling
jobBiff,according
Linda,isbadlyupsetwhenhisfather
a
criticizeshim,batstillkeepscominghome,unwillingtomake
break.Thesetwomen
are
are
thusextremelyconcernedabouteachother,butfromthefirsttherethatwillleadtomoreandmoreviolentarguments.
alsodeephostilities
Actually,Willy’Sattitude
towardBiffiscomplex.On
tO
one
hand,thereis
a
strong
personalattachment.HewantsBiffshownforhimbyBiffas
a
lovehim.Heremembersyearninglythefondness
craves
boy,andhestill
this.Atthispoint,however,relations
are
strained.Althoughoutwardlyresentingsuchallegedvindictiveness,Willystillwantstogetbacktheoldcomradeship,evenifhehas
tO
buyitdearly“Why
can‘t
1
givehim
something,”heasksthespectralBen,“andnothavehimhateme?’’Andhisgreatfinalmoment
ofjoyandtriumph
Occurs
whenhe
can
exclaim,“Isn’tthatremarkable?BifI=—_he
likesme!”Ontheotherhand,WillyalsoisemotionallyinvolvedwithBiffbecausehis
son’S
SUCCESS
or
failureisalsohis.Bybecomingrichandinfluential.thehandsome,
tO
personableBiffwillbeslated
provideWilly’Svictoriousreply
tO
all
not
sufficiently
impressedwithhisownmodestadvancement.Bymakinghisfortuneinthebusinessworld,BiffwillprovethatWillyhasbeenrightinturningdownBen’Sadventurouschallenge
tO
headforAlaska.Hewillalsooutshinethesensible,ploddingCharleyandBernard,thusestablishing
are
once
andforall
Willy’Stheorythathavingpersonalityandbeing“wellliked’’
Losinghisownjob,Willyisnaturallyunhappy.
thegreatrequisitesforpreeminence
can
Buthe
stillpurchase
Success
forBiffwiththeinsurancemoney,hepersonallywillyet
or
havewon.“1alwaysknew
one
way
anotherweweregonnamakeit.BiffandIf''
Biff’Sanger
at
hisfatherderivespartlyfrom
Willy’S
weaknessandhelplessness,partly
cut
fi'omhisbitterness,butpartlyalsofromhisloveforhim,alovewhichwon’tfromhisown
sense
Bifflooses
ofguilt.Toabsolvehisfatherwouldbetoadmittohisownweakness
wroteinhisnotebook,
andculpability,As
Miller
6
Bjff’Sconflictisthatadmit
to
to
tellthetruthwouldbe
to
diminishhimseIt
Ill
hisowneyes.J0
hisownfault
ThetruthisthatthoughWdidoverbuild
on
B’Sego,andthen
a1.so
Betrayedhim,Bifffeelsguiltinhisvengeance
Wknowingthathe
sees
isincompetent.
ThroughthisconfessionofhishavingusedW’Sbetrayal,W
resolvedtosuicide.“
hisbasiclove,andis
Hereitisimportanttocomprehendtheparadoxicalnatureoftheconflictbetween
Willy
or
andhischildren.ForwhatHap,andespeciallyBiif,havetofightisnotindifference
a
hostility,but
surfeitoflove
arenot
Theterribleironyoftheplayisthat
Willy’S
struggles,
sacrificeandfinalsuicide
forhisownmaterialadvancement,butforhissons.Even
whenBiffisthirty-fouryearsoldWilly
cannot
ridhimselfofthecompulsiontohelphim
cannot
WhenCharleygiveshimtheadviceofthepracticalrealist.Willy
overwhelmingneedtohavehis
cause
sons
takeit.Itisthis
succeedthatistheunderlyingdriveofhislifeandthe
ofhistragicagony.
Present
Past
versus
InMiller’Sworkthesignificantfactisnotthedifferencebetweenpastandpresentbut
thecontinuity,thecausal,moralconnection,the
concurrence
ofwhatwaswithwhatis.
Willylongsfor
an
idyllicpast,a
worldwhenhis
sons
BiffandHappywereyoung,when
an
Willythoughthimselfahot’shotsalesman,whenBrooklynseemed
ForWilly,yesterday’S
opencountry
hasbecome
today’S
unspoiledwilderness
oppressive
urban
reality.
Yesterday’Sdreamshavedeferredtotoday’Sdisillusionment.Thenthefamilywouldclimbintothe
car
to
ridetoEbbetsFieldandglory;nOWhepreparestoride
can
to
hisdeathalone.
Yesterday’Sbrighthopes
nowbecarriedintwobatteredsuitcases.Theycontainhislife
at
Then,theworldwaschargedwithenergyandhe
entropy
itshean,theheroofhisownstory.Now,ofcollapseAgoldenboyhasbecome
his
O'ATI
rules.Once--new
as
machines
are
in
astate
a
disillusionedman
Willy,oncetheprincipalin
tO
lifeandthe
center
ofattention,
nowfindshimselfpressed
themargin,leachingenergy.
Unable
tO
changehispresenthere・imaginesthepastwhichbecomessimultaneously
tO
pregnantwithpossibilityandtheprelude
despair.Inthepastthe
season
isalwaysspring,
withelmtreesinleafandlilacsinbloom
Butthisisthetimewhenlilacslastinthe
dooryardbloomed.Somethinghasdied,inWillyLomanandthesocietyhebelieves
l7
himselftoserve.Inthepresentgrasswillelm
trees
no
longergrow.Seedsfall
0i'1
barrengroundThe
havebeen
cut
down
tO
makeroomforapartmenthouses
Bewilderedb)’such
theironywhichisofdreams,struckthebyyouthfuldecline,byeclipsespiralling
underscoredbythenOWpermeablemembranebetweenpastandpresent,heretreatsmuchinto
a
notSO
realpast
asa
pastchargedwithnostalgia.Heis
as
a
romantic,likeF,Scott
Fitzgerald’SGatsby,and
pursuitof
to
a
jUSt
unawareofthecollateraldamagethatresultsfromhis
dream,fromtheunworthinessofthegodtowhichhehasdedicatedhislifeand
whichhe,too,willfinallysacrificehimself.
AsMillerpointsout,thisis
not
a“flashback”technique.ThefilmofDeath
ofa
Salesmanfailedpreciselybecauseittriedtoturnthememorysequencesintoflashbacks;
whatitdoesistopresent
a
pastdistortedbytherememberer’S
mind—asubjective.not
because
they
a
Occur
objecti'ce
record;and
thememorieshave
anextra
tension
simultaneouslywjtlleventsinthepresent.morelikeThissimultaneouspresentationofpast
a
doubleexposurethan
flashback
a
andpresent,dreamandreality,givestheplay
metaphoricquality.Normalchronologyisignored,therefore:theorderofeventsdepends
on
thewaythatmemoriesofthepastswimupoutofWill),’Smemorybecauseoftheir
emotionalassociationwiththingshappeninginthepresentparticularly,thatcertainthings
always‘。trigger'’thiskindofmentalrelapseinWillybecausethey
areSO
associatedwith
Willy’Sguik:silkstockings.for
instance.orthesoundofwomenlaughing;andtheblurring
across
ofmentalrealitiesisrepresentedvisuallybycharacterssteppingskeletalsetting.
Asactionprogressestheplaywrightmakesincreasing
use
thewalllinesofthe
ofsituationsinwhichpast
andpresentco—_exist
sense
as
in
a
montageThefrequent
use
ofthisdevice.bringinghomethe
ofconfusioninWilly’Smind.LaterinAct1,thespatial
thegiftofstockingstoThe
at
juxtapositionoftheforestage
hotel)withthebackground
action(Willygivfng
Womanin
the
action(Lindasitting
poignancy
tO
thekitchentablemendinghertornstockings)notonlyadds
Eachofthese
one
the
scene
butvisuallyunderscoresWilly’Smisplacedethics.
actionsis,Oilitsown,realistic,yettheirsimultaneouspresentation,especiali)sincefromthepastand
one
is
fromthepresent,provides
an
exciting
use
of
an
expressionistic
theatricalconventionthatreinforceswhatMillerlabels‘‘theconcurrency,of
pastand
18
Dresent.”:SMilleL
intheintroductiontohisCollectedPlays,insiststhatsuch
a
flexibleset,
withthehousealwaysvisibleonstage,increasesthedramatictensionbetweenthe“nov,'and
then."WhileWilly
loseshisawarenessoftheactualworld
sees
as
hishallucinationsforces
themselvesintohisconsciousness,theaudience
InAct2thereare,however,three
present
scenes
bothworldssimultaneously.
inwhichthedistinctionbetweenpastand
is
blurred:atthehotel
bedroomepisodewhenBiffdiscoxershis
father’S
unfaithfulness,inthekitchengardenwhenWillydiscloses
hisplanofsuicidetoBen,and
againinhishomewhenhemeetsBenbeforeherushesout.Thesescenes.interlockingpast
andpresent,generate
a
kindofdramatictensionwhichforcefully
as‘’a
projectsWilly’Sinternal
ofpast
and
world.Millerpicturesquelydescribesthis
present’’whichdepictsthedesperationof
between
mobile
concurrency
Willywhohas“destroyedtheboundaries
Will)'intothe
past
as
nOD/"and
then..16Theaudienceisreadytomovewith
changesintheset,notablythedisappearanceoftheapartmentbuildings,signaltheshiftto
Willy’Smind.
Themanydreamsequencesoftheplay,SOskillfullywovenintotheactionby
Miller’S
masterfulstagecraft,areinfacthistorical‘’researches’’byWilly,projectionsofthepastinto
thepresentbyWilly’Sacutehistoricalrecollection.They
not
are
hallucination,inthatthey
are
self-willed,but
not
a
classicillustrationofclinicalpsychosis,whereinthemind
withdrawsfromreality,orisdetachedfromrealitytothepointofsubstitutingfantasyforfact.Thepast
Willy‘’hallucinates”hasbeenactualand,central
out
to
theplay’Smeaning.is
activeinthepresent“dreamrising
ofreality.”Thatis,thepasthasshapedthefuture,
whichisthepresenttimeinwhichtheplay’Seventstakeplace.Thepast,orhistory.hasnotbeentranscended,asindeeditcannotbeexceptinmythunawareofitsrealsignificancetothepresent.The
Willy
thoughtawareofthepastis
dream
sequencesinvolving
Willyand
his
familydramatizehismoralconfusionandlackofdirection
Buttheveryhappinessheinvokesinhiscreatedpast
serves
to
underscorethegap
betweensuchimagesandhisown
existence
a
sense
ofinsufficiencyanddespair.Hesummonsinto
brotherwhois
all
embodimentofhisownneedsand
no
ambitions,who
will
retrospectively,validatepastdecisions
lessthanhispresentplantoridetoglory,but
whoseveryexistenceis,inhisownmind,ameasureofhisfailure.He
gradually'loses
19
controlofthepastAndwhereis
as
hehasofthepresent,darkermemoriesbeginning
tO
seepthrough
Willy
allthistime,hismindfloodedwithmemoriesofthepast,hiseyesstill
a
brightwithvisionsof
possiblefuture?Hefeels“kindoftemporary;”inotherwordshe
a
feelseffectivelyoutsideoftime,caughtbetween
For
suspectpastand
an
ever・recedingfuture
no
Willy,past
versus
andfuturealike
are
golden.Onlythepresentthrowsback
glow
Nature
SoeieV:
Willy
under
a
Loman’SlifeisrootedinAmerica’SpastHisearliestmemorywasofsitting
as
wagoninSouthDakota.Hisfatherhadmadeandsoldflutes
theytravelled
throughwhatwas
a
still,just,frontierterritory.Andthisremainstheworldofhisaspirations,
cancreate
naturalworldinwhichhe
thingswithhishands,inwhichhisidentityis
a
forgedbyhisownactionsratherthanimposedbythroughNewEnglandcitiessellingthingshehas
have
no
job
whichsendshimwandering
not
madehimselfandwhichtherefore
organicconnectionwithhis
sense
ofhimself.Butthepasthadnotbeenwholly
idyllic.Familialbetrayalhadexisted
even
then.Hisfatherhadabandonedthefamilvfor
Alaska,presumablytomakehisfortunethere.HisbrotherBenhadlefthomewhen
wasinto
a
Willv
verysmallchildwiththeintentionoffindingtheirfatherbut,infact,wanderingoff
an
Africapartrealandpart
myth.Willywas
thusborninto
a
worldintransition.a
as
worldinwhichthepressureofthematerialwasalready
unmakingthepastoralmythcitieswereencroaching
on
the
theruralnatureofnineteenth—centuryAmerica.
Inaddition,thebusinesspicturehas
changed.Willyhasworkedalmostthirty-six
years
forthecompany.Duringthattimehehasopened
upnewmarketsandservedthem
faithfully.NoKhobever,thebusinessisunderthedirectionofHoward,theoldemployer,s
son-Howardis
notone
to“appreciate”long,loyalservice,andhaslittlesympathyfor
an
aging—ineffectualsalesman.Ashisproductionslowsupwithincreasing
age,Willyisdeprivedof
a
steadysalaryandputback
no
on
straightcommissionlike
a
beginner.The
company,however,shows
gratitude.Thecold,impersonaltoneofbusinessstodavwill
Dast
becontrastedwiththefriendlier,morehnmane
spiritofpasttrmasactions.Inthefriendsusedmechanical
to
old
helpWillywith
an
occasionalextraorderThereismoreofthecoldlv
even
insalestransactions,whereasformerly,aswhenoldDave
Singleman
flourished,therewasmoreevidenceofrespect,comradeship,andgratitude.Nowheis
20
neitherknown
nor
welcomedWill)'contraststhetwogenerations:“Ifold
Wagner
wasalive
I'dbeeninchargeofNewYorkbynow]…Butthatboyofhis,Howard,hedon‘taopreciate’‘ThetermsinwhichHappyalludes
isgoing
tO
tO
thecity
world—the“racket,”in
whichhe
showeverybodythathe
can
come
outon
top-一recallallthathaspreviously
beensaidabouttheintensecompetitionandlowmoralstandards.
By"contrast,Biff’Scall
tO
joinhim
inthemoreeasy-going
West
soundslike
a
last
chanceforhealthandsanity.Biff’SlyricaltalksoftheWesternfarminthespring,withfifteenfinenewcolts,contrastswithHappy’Sdisgruntledbribery,andquestionableloveaffairsthatcharacterizehis
thecity,Biffcouldnotwhistlein
an
account
ofthecompetition.
urbanworld.Whenworkingin
elevatorwithoutbeingthoughtmad.Biffwishesthat
as
he,hisfather,andhisbrothercouldwork
carpentersOUt
tO
on
theopenprairie.Thenthey
wouldbefreefromthe“nuthouse”cityandfree
bothbrothers,apparently,haveskippedwork
on
whistle.Asdevoteesoftheoutdoorlife,
tO
summerdays
goswimming.
pastillustrateshow
trees
Certainly,Willy’SinternallongingsfortheBrooklynofthe
dreamingandillusionworksinhis
mind.Willy’SwistfullongingfortheBrooklyn
includeshiscomplaintabouthowthe“bricksandwindows,windowsandbricks’’haveboxedinthishouse.Thesebuildingsrepresentculturewhichencroaches
not
a
modempost・WorldWarIItechnological
only
on
Willy’Shouse,buttheveryfabricofhisexistence
Willylongsfor
a
placewhichdoes
not
existinpost-WorldWar11Brooklyn,butonlyinthe
are
memoryinsidehishead.Thus,there
twoBrooklynsin
Willy’Smind—_the
pastoral.
romantic,unspoiledwilderness;andtheBrooklynofthepresenttimeofthe
placewheretheapartmentbuildingsofthecityloom
over
play—the
thesmallerwoodflamehouses.
Andthelyricalechoofhisfather‘Sfluterecalling‘’grassandtreesandthehorizon”isnow
supersededforWillybythesoundof
contrast
cars
andthenoiseofbuilding.Invisualtermsthe
on
isthatbetweenthebluelightofthesky,alightwhichfalls
a
thehouses,andwhat
Miller,in
stagedirection,callsthe“angryglowoforange’’fromthesurroundingbuildings
as
ThiscontrastbetweenBrooklynamongWily,Biff,andHappy.
cityandcountrytouchesuponmanyoftheconflicts
ⅡTheDramaticDevicesandSymbolsServedtoStrengthentheContrast
2
A.Music(flute)、lighting
andsetting
Forunveilingthethemeoftheplay,theplaywrightadoptstheworkabledramatic
devicesandsymbolstodeepenthecontrast.
MusicbeginsSalesman,and
not
byaccident;we
aretO
hear
Willybefore
we
see
him
andbeforehespeaks.Hewasthereinthehollowoftheflute,thewind,theairannouncinghisarrivalandhisdoom.Fromtheopeningflutenotes
tO
theirfinalreprise,Miller’S
musicalthemesexpressthecompetinginfluencesinWillyLoman’Smind.Onceestablished,
thethemesneedonlybesounded
tO
evokecertaintimeflames,emotions,andvalues
Musicisassociatedwitheachof
theinteriorsequencosinSalesman,althoughas
theplay
proceeds
an
ironiccounterpointmaybeincreasinglyestablishedbetweensoundandimage
Theplaybeginswith:“Amelodyisheard,playedupon
a
flute.Itissmallandfine,
tellingofgrassand
trees
andhorizon,..Anairofthedreamclingstotheplace,adream
rising
out
ofreality,’’1’Theflutenotes“smallandfine,”representthegrass,trees,and
horizon——objects
of
Willy’S
longingthat
are
tellinglyabsentfromtheovershadowedhome
on
whichthecurtainrises.Thismelodyplays
on
as
Willymakeshisfirstappearance,
although.asMillertellsUS,'Ihehearsbutisnotawareofil”Throughthismusicwe
are
thus
given
our
first
sense
of
Willy’Sestrangement
not
onlyfrom
nature
itselfbutfromhisown
deepestnature.Thisisthesalesmen’Stheme,recalling
Willy’Sdistantand
vaguememoryof
hisfatherandultimatelybecominghisownhauntingtheme.Thefluteis
one
ofthesimplest
most“natural,”andmosteasilycraftedofinstruments.Thisassociation,ofcourse,leadstosomediscussionof
Willy’Sfatherand
of
Willy’Srepressedinner
nature;italsoacts
asa
preparationfor
Willy’Sseed—plantingattemptattheplay’Send.Thewordhol’izon,moreover
suggests
thelimitlessnessassociatedwiththeAmericandreaminthetimeof
our
youth:
anythingispossiblewhen
no
boundaries
are
recognized.Ftmher,thehorizonrepresentsthe
opennessthatistheantithesisoftheurbanenvironmenthemmingintheLomanresidence
Willy‘Sconflictingdesires
to
workinsalesandtodooutdoor,independentwork
are
complicatedbyanotherlonging,thatofsexualdesire,whichisexpressedthroughthe“raw
sensuous
music”thataccompaniesThe
Woman’S
appearances
on
stage.Itisthemusicof
sexualdesire,itisheard
just
before
Willyreliving
a
past
conversation--offers
thisironic
warning
to
Biff:“Just
wanna
becarefulwiththosegirls,Biff,thatisa11.Don’tmake
any,
22
kind.‘‘ofanypromisepromise.No
Inhisfinalmomentsof
life,WillyLoman
isshownstrugglingwithhisfuries:一sounds;
faces.voices.seem
tO
beswarminginuponhim”Suddenly,however.the“faintandhigh’’
musicenters.representingthefalsedreamsofallthe‘。low”men,Thisfalsetunesends
Willy‘S
strugglewithhiscompetingvoices.ItdrownsOUttheothervoices,risingin
tOan
intensity“almost
unbearablescream”asWillyrushesoffinpursuit.
on
Theplayendswith:“Onlythemusicofthefluteisleft
thedarkeningstage
asover
thehousethehardtowersoftheapartmentbuildingsriseintosharpfocus’’Itbeganwithdreamsandlongingsofthehumanheartandthecurtaincomesdown
thelongings
are
on
shattereddreams;
stillthere,butsidebysidestandthehardfactsofreality,
tOcreatea
Fromthefirstthefluteisused
mood
oran
atmosphereHerethefluteis
an
“expressionist”device.Itmeanssomethingotherthan
a
tune,a
representationoflifeinthe
more
as
open,alifefullofhopeandpeace.Thefluteisintroduced
once
Willybegins
to
imagine
a
happierlifeinthepast
can
ThefluteisparticularlysuitedtOthis,asitis
a
an
instrumentwhich
beeasilyassociatedwithnostalgia.EventhoughWillyis
an
heavy—set,
an
agingman,lumberinginwithweightyvalises,heisalsoelusivevision
or
individualforeverpursuing
or
dream.Andthelightmusicoftheflute,neverpronounced
intrusive,
keepsthissideofpresent-day
Willybefore
flashbacks
theaudience.ItisalsousedtOprovidetransitionsfrom
scenestO
and
viceversa.Unlikemanymoreconventionalworks,
as
thisplaydoesnotloweranycurtain
even
theactionmovesfrom
one
place
tO
theother,or
from
tO
one
momentintimetoanotherthatoccurredfifteenyearsbefore.Thefluteis
over
nsed
smooth
thefrequentshiftsandtOhelpsetsuccessive
scenes
Thirdly',theflute
isconnectedwith
Willy’Sfamilyhistory.His
a
fathe%thatgreat,“wild-hearted”man,madethecountrysellingthem.Hewasthus
tO
a
flutesandtookhisfamilyin
wagonall
over
craftsman,andWillyisalwaysproudofbeingableof
course,a
dothingswithhishands.Hewasalso,
tO
salesman,andhisroving."adventurous’’lifehasobviouslysignified
Willy'a
quickly
never
typeoffree,unencumberedexistence,withprofitsunlimitedforthosewho
inventsomesuchclevergadget.Thesoundofthefluteisthusalsothecall
can
Willy
whollystopshearing
toa
challengingnomadiccareer,probablyinthegreat
West.
sntesm[1nhasdonemorethananyotherplaystodeveloptheexpressivepowersof
stagelighting
Attheendofact1,Biffcomesdownstage“into
a
goldenpooloflight’’as
a
Willy
recallsthedayofthecitybaseballchampionshipwhenBiffwas“like
youngGod.
Hercules--something
likethat.Andthesun.the
as
sun
allaroundhim."Thepooloflightboth
establishesthemoment
Willy’Smemories
andsuggestshowhehasinflatedthepast,
tO
givenitmythicdimension.Thelightingalsofunctions
instill
asense
ofironyinthe
that,
audience,forthegodenlightsglows
on
undiminished
as
Willyexclaims,"AStarlike
magnificent,can
a
never
reallyfadeaway!’’WeknowthatBiff’Sstarfaded,evenbeforeithad
evenas
chancetoshine,and
Willyspeaksthesewords,thelight
on
himbeginstofade.
to
ThatWilly’Sthoughtsturnimmediatelyfromthisgodenvisionofhis
son
hisownsuicide
isindicatedbythe‘'blueflame”ofthegasheaterthatbeginsimmediatelytOglowthroughthe
wall一a
foreshadowingofWilly’Sdesire
tO
gildhis
or
son
throughhisowndemise
ProductionsthatomiteitherthegodenpooloflightforeshadowingofWilly’Sfinaldeed
Similarly,productionsthatomitthelights
revealthepotencyof
on
theglowinggasheaterwithholdthis
theemptychairsmissthechance
tO
Willy’Sfantasies.Perhaps
even
moreimportant,thegasheater‘S
flame
at
theendofact1recallsthe“angryglowoforange”surrounding
Willy’S
houseatthe
are
play’Sbeginning.Thiscolourrepresentstheangerofpeoplewhofallinthecity,who
deprivedofpromise,who,likeBiff,areangeredbythewayoflife.Bothjoinwiththe“redglow'’risingfromthehotelroomandtherestauranttogivearticulated
cry:“The
woods
are
a
feltbig
sense
ofWilly’Stwicegoing
on
burning!…There’S
a
blaze
all
around."WithouttheseWillylS
state.
sensoryclues,audiencesmayfailtoappreciatethedesperationof
TheJoMielzinerdesignfortheoriginalsolutionmightbe
seenas
set
ofDeath
ofa
Salesmanislegendary.His
a
modernistinapproach
Thesetcreated
spaceforthevarious
on
worldsofWilly’SlifeLocationsweresetwithminimalfurnishings
placedaddingCharley’Slivingroom
tO
therevolves,
the
locationspresentedinthepremiereproduction
are
Becausethecharacterswhohauntremained
on
Willy
omnipresent,withfewexceptions.actors
stagethroughouttheplay.Hiscentraldesignconceptwastheconsrant
24
presenceoftheLoman‘shouse
on
thestage.the
objective
correlative,ashesawit,forthe
Americandream.Theexpressionistelementsofhisdesign,thecruciallightingchangesthat
signifiedthe
subjective
shiftsinWilly’sconsciousness.workedin
juxtaposition
withthis
a
materialsignifieroftheSalesman’SdreamMielziner’Shousewasculturalmyththat
once
aconstant
reminderof
provided
asense
ofpurposeforAmericanslikeWillyLoman.The
the
subjective
realitysurrounding
it--threatening,unstable,constantlyshifting--suggested
disintegrationofthemythinthenation’Sconsciousness.Mielziner’Sdesignsuggestedthemodernist’Sperceptionthathisacceptedveritiesandinstitutionsandmythsandfillingaway,butalsothemodernist’Sdesiretosomehowfindthemwholeagain,an
Salesmanj
art
an
are
fragmenting
to
aestheticway
make
thatwillprovidetheintegrationthattheculturehaslost.
creators
relinquishesarchitecturaldetailinfavorof
createsa
a
settingwhichallou’S
audiencestopeerintoWilly’Smind.Theyinteriorplaying
areas
skeletalsettingwhichprovidsthree
scenesto
andpermitted
a
a
varietyofother
beplayed
ona
large
forestage.Thehouseissetagainstlightingfrombetweenthe
writes
at
an
backgroundwhich
a
can
betransformedby
a
a
changeof
oppressivecityscapeto
leafypastoralThispermits
rapidalternation
scenes
inthepresentandothersfromWilly’Smemoryofthepast.As
Miller
thebeginningofthe
play,"Whenevertheactionisinthepresenttheactorsobserve
scenes
theimaginarywall—lines,enteringthehouseonlythroughitsdoorattheleft.Butin
ofthepasttheseboundariesstepping‘through
a
are
broken,andcharactersenter
or
leave
a
roomby
wallontotheforestage,"Theproductionflow'ssmoothlyfromthe
or
Lomankitchenoutintooffice
restaurantOn
a
theforestage,andfromfullylit
scenesto
isolatedpoolsofillumination.Theeffectis
combinationofdetailedrealismand
a
more
poeticexpressionism。Theminimalselectionof
Infact.thereis
no
objects
heightenstheirsignificance
realchangeinthesetting.and,atthesametime,itisperpetually
on
transformed.Thesalesman’Shouseremains
walls
are
stage,butinthe
scenes
remembered,its
or
of
no
concem--as
isthe
case
withmemory,whichhas
no
temporal
spatial
scenes
limits.Thisrelativityofthepresentbecomesparticularlyclearinthosetransitionalthatbelongtotheouterthe
memory
as
well
as
the
innerreality.Such
isthesituationinthefirstactwhen
on
figure,Ben,Willy’S
brother,appearsstage
while
he
and
sees
hishis
neighbor,Charley,areplayingcards.Thesalesmansaysnothingthatindicateshe
2S
deadbrotherinfrontofhim,Hisappearancecouldbe
a
hallucination,butonlywithin
thisplay,present
dramaticform.whichbydefinitionexcludestheinnerworld.Yet,in
Lomanisresentation.Becausesimultaneousachieveofthetheandrealitvpastrealit)rremindedofhisbrother.thelatterappears
on
stage:memoryhasbeenincorporatedintothe
a
principleunderlyingscenicform.Inmanyways,thispresents
returnto
Greekand
Elizabethanstaging,nowaugmentswithtwentieth—centurytechnology.
TheEnglishcriticDennis
Wellandhassummarizedthethematicimportanceofthese
cause
transparentsetting:‘‘Thecataclysmsthat
thefallofthefrontageofthehousesof
Tennessee
EngeneO’Neill’SEphraimCabotandEzra
Marmon,of
Williams’SAmanda
Wingfield
andStanleyKowalski,andof
Miller’SWillyLoman,arepsychologicalrather
thanmeteorological…The‘exploded’housesetisintegraltotheimpressionatwhichall
theseplaysaim,formore
tO
not
onlydoesitmirrorthefamilycombustionthathascomemoreand
tO
dominatetheAmericantheatre,butitispeculiarlysuited
theirdramaticidiom.’’
Themusicandextensive
use
oflightingandskeletalwallswererelativelynewin
mainstreamBroadwaytheatreof1949.TheyallfunctiontoexpresstheworldinsideWillyLoman’Shead,aworldinwhichsocialandpersonalvaluesmeetandmergeandstruggle
forintergration.Throughhiscarefulintegrationoftherealisticandsurrealisticaspectsof
theplay,Millernotonlyallowshisaudienceto
see
theinnerworkingsandstrangelogicof
thateverythingWillysaysanddoes
a
Willy’Smind,buthedoes
retains
a
SO
insuch
a
waythat
ensures
strong
sense
ofprobability.Inthisway,whatisessentiallyimpossibletOviewin
realistic
manner--the
streamofconsciousnessinside
a
person’S
head—is
presentedtOthe
audienceinviabledramaticterms.
B.Will),’S
house、car,etc.
a
Theimageofthehouseinthehappypast,setingreenleaves,isaccompaniedby
hauntingmelody
on
theflute
Natureandtheoutdoorscharacterizethepast.whenthe
housestoodintree—linedfields.So
Willy’Shouse.oncesituatedin
a
openfields,thelocation
dramatizedintheoriginalproductionby
transparentgauzecurtaincoveredwithleaves
whichbecomesapparenttotheaudiencewhensurroundedbyapartmenthouses
Willyisrecallingthat
pastoralpast.is
no、,v
Inthepresent,withapartmentbuildingsclosingin,itis
26
impossible
to
triestodointheWillyyard,althoughplantanything
a
SOOIl
hislastday.The
Dictureofhimwith
the
flashlightinthenight,plantingcarrot,beet,andlettuceseedsin
infertileearth,SUmSupthefutilityofhislifeandoftheheritageheleaveshis~seed.”
The
housealternatelybecomes
a
haventOwhichtheexhausted,Failedsalesman
a
returns,supported,evenindulgedbyhiswifeLinda,andBiffchallengeshim
to
placeofreckoning
as
his
son
relinquishhisfantasiesandfacethe
truth.Will)'’S
guilt。whichhe
deniesandultimatelyisforcedtOacknowledge,isrevealedlargelythroughproperties:“thegasheater(which)beginstoglowthroughthekitchenwall,"therubbertubingLindatells
Biffabout,whichhefindsandconfronts
Willywith,andthestockingswhichWilly
cannot
tolerateLindamendingbecausetheyremindhimofhisadultery,asBiffcries,"YougaveherMama’Sstockings[”
Thehouseevidentlyalsorepresentsthem【ythoftheman’Shomebeinghiscastle——orhere,castleintheair,the‘’airofthedream”clingingtothehome.Willy’Sfailuretogetlovefromhisfatherandbrotherandhisfailuresinbusiness
whereheiSwhathedefineshimselftObe
“Figureit
can
beobfuscatedinthehome,
out,”Willysays.“Work
a
lifetime
tO
payoff
a
house,youfinallyownit,
andthereisnobodytOliveinit”Ofcourse.the“nobody”isBiff,hisson.Sothehouse
comesthroughBiffLoman.
as
theexternalmanifestationof
Will)'’Sdreamofthefuture,asuccessful
WhenLinda
saysinthecurtain
on
line,“We’refree”,sherefersliterally,of
course,to
havingmadetheIastpayment
thehousemortageandthusfinallybeingclearofdebt.
Linda,alwaysthewomanofthehouse.isparticularlytothinkthatthemortgagehasbeenfinallypaidoff,Willywill
not
betheretOsharethebuildingwithherIn
a
sense,thehouse
representsthewholeoftheirthirty一讯7ehard—workingyearstogetherTheirmarriagehasbeenthestruggle
tO
possess
a
houseBiff,too.referstopartsofthehouse.such
as
stoop,
cellar,andporch.TohimtheyrepresentWilly’Sexpencarpenteringskills.andhencethe
answertohisunrealitic
or
wrongdreams.Andtheyalsosignifythegoodyearsof
cooperativeeffortwhenfamilyharmonyprevailedIronically,toacquirewhatispromisedbythesystem,thesecharactershaveunwittinglyhelpeditflourishbytheirunquestioningacquiescence
tO
its
rule卜which
inturn,overtheyears,haveimprisonedthemin
27
a
circle
ofindebtedness.ofearningandpayingAndthehouse,onceachieved,nolongerfulfillsthedreamofpastorallifein
a
garden.
Probablythemostevocativeofthesymbolshaspolishedis.of
IS
the
on
eat
TheoldChevroletwhichBiff
out.
course.Willy’S
meansofcarrying
his
job,and,likehim,itwears
Buthereitpointsouttheclosecooperationbetweenfatherandsons.Familyprideand
community
are
epitomizedintheweekendpolishingandoutings.Bytheendoftheplaythe
car,tOO,hasbeensymbolicallysuperseded,NotonlyhasWillybeenfiredfromhisroadbuthehasalso,literally,endedhisdrivingadded,inhis
car.
career
job.
bykillinghimself-doingSO,itmustbe
Willy’Sfathertraveledby
byautomobileThe
ear
coveredwagon;theoldsalesmanSinglemanby
train;Willy,
isthesymbolofmobilityinindustrialcapitalistsociety,a
mobility
extendedfamilystructureintheinterestsof
a
thathelpedbreakup
an
moremobilenuclear
doesathome(full
one.Willy
spendsmoretimeinthe
a
car(thatprovestObe
on
junk)thanhe
ofthingsthatbreakdown),in
kindoflimboout
thehighway
ChapterThree
A
Man
OfDisillusionment
thecruelparadoxofthetraditionalLoman,liketragicprotagonist,symbolizesWilly
humanexistence.Hisstory(according
to
to
Miller’sintruductionCollectedPla3s)stripped
itsmythicessential,isfamiliar:
Anagedking_一apious
man--moves
towardlife’sendInsteadofreapingthebenefitsof
Becauseof
a
hispiety,hefindshimselfcaughtinbewilderingcircumstances.
mistake
—an
error
in
judgment_atragicreversalhastakenplaceinhis
life.Wherehehasbeenpriest,
knowerofsecrets,wietderofpower,andsymboloflife,henowfindshimself
adjudged
defiler,usurper,destroyer,andnecessarysacrifice.Likethetraditionalhero,Lomanbeginshislong
he
season
ofagonyInhisdescen,however,thereisthefamilialtragicparadox;for
inevitable
as
moves
toward
destruction,he
tO
acquires
that
knowledge,that
l8
SeDSe
of
reconciliation,whichallowshim
conceive
a
redemptiveplanforhishouse
Willyispartially
a
victimofcircumstance.Hecouldnothaveavoidedgettingoldand
tired,anymorethanhecouldhavepreventedthebuildingoftheapartmentsthatheminhis
house.Therewas
evenan
elementofmischanceinBiff’SinopportunevisittoBoston
What’Smore,Willydid
not
originatesomeofthe
erroneous
conceptsandvaluesthathelped
defeathim.Theideaofthefast・madefortune,the“quickkilling,”is,tosomeextent,
characteristicallyAmerican
ITheAttackofUnemployment
Themostpowerfulpositivevalueintheplayisthevalueoffamilyloyalty.Thereis
doubtof
no
Willy‘Sloveforhisfamily,particularlyforhisson,Biff.Itisthebetrayalofthis
1%'altywhichruinsWilly’Slife,ratherthancommercialfailure,anditisinthe
family,lovethathefinallykillshimself,dying“asGassner,IntroductiontoDeath
a
name
of
father,not
asa
salesman”(John
concern
Ca
Salesmanin
Treasuo;oftheTheatre).His
SUCCESS
for
Lindaandtheboysisgenuine,buthisneedfor
overcomeshisfeelingsofloyalty.
workemotionallyHeisalsotiedemotionallytoBiff,HappyandLinda.butheistiedtohis
also.Willy
who
enters
asks,thenbegs.Howard
Wagnerfor
on
a
transfertothehomeoffice.Heis
a
a
marl
hisboss‘Soffice
once
to
insist
themoralauthorityofthepast,onThisis
a
contractonce
made.anobligmion
goesintopleadfor
acknowledged
criticalmomentinWilly’Slife,ashe
On
a
NewYork
jobafterspendingthirty-fouryears
theroad.Itisthe
playlSmostblatantlyanti-businessscene.Onthesurface,itis
alsotheplay’Smost
obviouslyanti—technologyscene,forthroughoutmostofitHowardispreoccupiedwithhis
newtoy,awirerecorder.It“records
things,”Howardexplainsenthusiastically:
ttell
OUt
you,Will)',f’mgonnatakemycamera,andmybandsaw,andallmyhobbies.and
ever
theygo.Thisisthemostfascinatingrelaxation1
found.‘9
WhenWillyaccidently
Howard’Sfive—year-oldthefrightenedmanandhe
cannot
SOn
switches
on
the
Hire—recordingmachine?thevoice
a
of
on
recitingstatecapitalsbecomecruel,cacophonousassault
a
preludetohisfiring.WhenHowardWagnerexplainstoWillythat
work
on
thefloor,finallyhehaslosthis
a
job,Howardspeaksinthe
do
a
jargon
and
platitudesofthemarketplace:“You’rehad
a
road
a
iTlall.Willy,andWe
roadbusiness”“IfI
spot,l’dslamyouright
in”…It
S
business,kid,andeverybody’Sgottapullhisown
weight.”
Willybecomesdesperate:
Will):
…There
werepromises
made
across
thisdesk!Youmustn’ttelIme
You’vegot
peopleto
see一1
putthirty,一fouryearsintothisfirm.Howard.andnOWI
theorangeandthrowthepeelawaV——amanis
payattention
a
can’t
paymypieceof
1
insurance!You
call’teat
nota
fruit!(ACe,‘“pause)Now
averaged
a
Yourfacher_一jn1928Ihad
a
big)'ear
hundredandseventydollars
weekincommissions
Howard:(impatiently):Now,Willy',you
never
averaged…20
As
Willy
says
to
Howard,hehasbeenusedlike
an
orange;thefruithasbeeneatenand
to
the
peel—WⅢy
himself—isthrownaway.Afterheisfired,hecomplains
30
Charley,“After
a11thehighwaysandthe
trains,andtheappointments,andthe
years,youendupworth
hasleteveryone
moredeadthanalive.”Moneydefinessuccess,bylosinghisdowet,mostofallhimselfiWhatWillyhas
forthefamilyispartofaman’s
to
job,Willy
beis‘aman’Home-buildingandproviding
duty;Withoutajob,Willycandoneither.Hisprideishurt.
scene
Bminthemiddleofthis
Willycelebrates
Dave
Siagleman,whichlinkshim
withhisownfatherandcommercewiththeAmericanfrontier:
Oh,yeah,myfatherlivedmanyyearsinAlaska.Hewas
quite
a
an
adventurous
man,We’vegot
olderbrother
littlestreakofself-reliancein
our
family.1thoughtI’dgooutwithmy
andtrytolocatehim,andmaybesettleintheNorthwiththeoldman.And1almostdecided
to
go,whenImet
a
salesmanintheParkerHouseHisnamewasDave
Singleman.Doyou
know?Whenhe
died—andby
thewayhediedthedeathof
a
salesman,inhisgreenvelvet
slippersinthesmokeroftheNewYork,NewHavenandHartford,goingintohedied,hundredsofsalesmanandbuyerswere
at
Boston--when
hisfuneral...Inthosedaystherewas
21
personalityinit,HowardTherewasrespect,andcomradeship,andgratitudeinit
Thereferenceto“personality”doesnotswayHowardbecauseheiswe
are
not
listening.But
listening--Willy’s
longestinthe
play--swells
out
ofthepainfulconflictsbetween
bossandemployee,parents
andchildren,menandmachines.
IIIndentityLost
Miller,by
andlarge,equateshishero’ssearchforfinancialsecuritywiththesearchfor
a
identityofamodernman.Inoldercivilizationsbyvirtueofhisnoblebirth
or
mancouldachievepoweranddistinction
title
so
or
dedicatedsocialservice.Butthebusinessman’sethos
a
dominatestheAmericanmind
andmoneyseems
to
muchthatonlymoneygives
source
citizensocialdistinction,
betheprime
ofstatus.
Will},’s
entireidentity,forinstance,istiedupinhisimageofwhattheidealsalesman
are
shouldbe.Americans
peculiarinthattheydefinethemselves
not
bywhothey'arebutby
whattheydo.Intalkingaboutand
J.P.Morgan,Charleydeconstmctsthenotionofbeingliked
locatesthe’‘real”withinthe
image:‘’Whymnsteverybodylikeyou?Who
liked
3
J.P.Morgan?Washeimpressive?In
Docket
on
a
Turkishbathhe’dlooklike
a
butcher.Butwithhis
the
he"Wasvery,wellliked.‘’22bloney.asCharleyknowsbut
Will)'doesnot,is
siteⅥherevalueisestablished
AsBergerargues,"ThosewholackthepowertOspend
mone)becomeliterally"facelesslogicbywhichhetries
says,"He
never
Thosewhohavethepowerbecomelovable.’’25Inthe
tO
becomemumber
one,Willyhasbecomefaceless,or
triedtoestablish
an
as
Biffthe
knewwhohe
was.”Willy'has
a
identitybased
on
modelofLomanisoff
as
arl
advertisingimagefor
competitivesystemhedoesnotunderstmrd
tOpass
Willy
itself
a
failedpublicityimage,afailedstylewhosesubstanceisitsability
real
Willy’Sidentitypoised
overan
anguished
emptiness--the
emptinessofdeath
andofLinda’Sfinalwords
intheplay,“We’refree.”.True.Biffis
easttO
caughtinthe
paradigmaticmythoftheadolescentmaleescapingfromthe
self-realizationina“worldelsewhere’’ButMiller’Sfocusis
on
theruralwestfor
heoughttO
Will)'andhow
havelivedmeaningfullyin
a
urban,business—driven
SUCCESS
context.
Will),ispuzzledbythe
other
sons
enjoy:OldmanWagner’S
son
HowardisBemardis
successfulbyinheritance,andhisidiomreflectshissecurity.Charley’Ssuccessfulbyhardwork
even
son
thoughCharley
never
toldhimwhattodo..nevertookany
Both
sons
interestinhim,andhisidiomreflectshisstudiousness
succeededwithinthe
a
frameworkofAmericancapitalism.YetBiffis
father’S“phoneydream”evenafterhehas
a
failurebecauseheremained
as
slavetohis
rejectedhisfather
a
a~phoneyfake.‘1Hisidiom
reflectshisimmaturity;evenhisnameisimportance,butonlyforthosewho
can
boy’Snickname.Clearly',familyretainsits
cannot
playthegame.They
SOnScannot
relysimply
on
name;
theymustdeliverthegoods.ButWillyandhis
Exceptfor
deliver.
once
Willy’Ssuicide,perhapstheactionheperformsthatisat
most
meaninglessandyetmostmeaningfulishisplantingofthegardentowardtheendofthe
secondact
Miller
starts
preparing
US
forthisactionearlyintheplay'whenWillyfocuses
tO
on
whattheurbanizationofBrooklynhasdone
you
can’t
hisyard:“Thegrassdoesn’tgrowanymore,
raise
acarrot
inthebackyard."Despitethisfact,atthebeginningofthesecond
over
act,in
a
surgeofhopefulness
bothBiff’Sandhisown
tO
possibilities.Willy
saysto
Linda,”Gee,onthewayhometonightI'dlike
get
a
buysomeseeds.”EvenafterBifffailsto
sons
loanfromOliver,Howardfires
Willy,and,saddestofall,Willy’S
32
abandonhim
at
F埘1k‘s
Chop
House—WiIly
isstillthinkingofplanting
a
a
garden.Afterthewaiterhelpsintheneighborhood?”Herethe
himofftherestroomfloor,Willyasks."Isthere
seeds.、、hichearlierrepresented
seed
store
Will}'’S
hopes,come
a
to
hismindbecauseofhisfailure,his
despair:’’Nothingisplanted.”hesays:“Idon’thave
return
thingintheground”When
his
sons
home,Willy,in
an
anact
confessinghisfailure,isplantinghisgardeninthedark
Besides
admissionoffailure,thisactisyetanothersignthatWillyisbreaking
one
down.Andthegardenplantingrelatestothelargeractionoftheplayinotherways.For
thingitdramatizestheconflictbetweenthepastoralvaluesoftheLomanfamilyandthe
urbansettingthat,inboxingthemin,seemstohelptOdestroythem.Theasserting
tOO
scene
shows
Willy'
late—_and
not
willfullybut
a
compulsively—that
possibletrueselfwhoisgood
withhishands,whomighthavebeengoodfarmer,whoshouldhavegone,perhaps,tO
Alaskatomanagehisbrother’Stimberlandin“thosegrandoutdoors.”Sincethegardenplantingwillbefruitless,theactionalsoremindsfruitlessinthe
sonsare
US
thattheLoman’Sliveshavebeen
On
sense
thatnothinghasgrowntomaturity
a
Loman
ground.Willy’Sfailed
still
boys,andWillyhimselfhasremained
an
largekidAnd,moreover,becausethe
on
gardenplantingleadstonothing,itbecomes
considers
as
ironiccommentary
thesuicideWilly
heplantsthegarden.Stillcaught,evenwhileacknowledgingfailure.inhis
yet
one
needto
succeed,Willyplots
moreactionthatwillbearfruit,provehisworth,and
see
showthathislifehadmeaning.But,asweshall
whenweconsiderthefinal
Seene.
Willy’Ssuicide,likethegardenheplants,does
In
not
bearfruit.
sellinghimselftO
ensure
factheis
not
sellingautomobiles,heis
personal
sense
fulfillment.and
peaceandhappinessinthefamilyHe、failstOgaintheminimum
of
securityandprosperityinhisprofession,andhelosestherespectandaffectionofhis
childrenforwhomhe
caresSO
muchHisfailureisallthemorepitiablebecausein
tO
an
age
ofrigidorganizationheiscontent
cherishandfollowthedeclaredidealofthegreat
open
SODSto
society:heishardworking,heishonest,hetrainshis
everythinghetouchedcomestonothing.Itisalmost
a
be‘well
liked‘一and
vet
typical
case
oftheAmericandream
transformedintoAmericanillusion!
IIITheFinalDecisioninFaceofReali_ty
Theconflictbetween
Willy
andhis
son
risesin
a
crescendooftradedrecriminations
LIntilBiffforceshisfathertofaceuptotherealityaboutbothofthem:
Biff:Pop!l'm
a
dime
off
a
dozen,and
an
SOare
you!
nota
Willy:(turning
himin
uncontrolledoutburst):IamBiffLomd,n!
dime
a
dozen!I
am
Willy
Loman,andyou
are
Biff:lam
no'ta
leaderofmel3,Willy,andneither
are
you.You、14ere
rest
never
anythingbut
one
a
hardworkingdrummerwholandedintheash
can
liketheofthem!J'm
are
dollar
to
an
hour,Willy!…l’m
waitingforme
moment
to
not
bringinghomeanyprizesanymore,andyou
too
going
stop
a
bringthemhome!(Thepitchis
then
highforthetwoofthemThereis
moves
of
suspension,and
Biff
breaks
down.Weeping,Biff
slowly
offstage
P
WhenBifffinallybreaksdownand
fatherin
a
criesand,thus,finallyconfesseshisIo、,eforhis
wayWill)'cangrasp,we
see
thatWillyiscapableofsomeunderstandingAnd
for
love,whichMillerhassaidwasinwhichpulls
arace
Willy’Ssoul,becomesthe
can
verymechanism
sonas
Willytowardshisdeath.ButWiily
acceptneitherhimselfnorhis
can
averageandwhatalsobecomesclearisthathisenlightenment
he
cansee
onlybepartialbecause
SO
his
son
onlyintermsofhisnotionofSUCCESS.Indeed,Willyis
uses
firmly,caught
byhisacceptanceofthisnotionthathe
it
to
justify
killinghimself,
In-Talesman,BifffinallyforcesWilly
tO
to
facereality.“[Whipping)therubbertubeout”
never
confront
Willywithhissuicidalintentions,heexclaims,“We
toldthetruthfor
ten
minutesinthishouse!”Biffacceptsresponsibilityforhisownlife:“I‘mnothing.Pop
Can’tyouunderstandthat?There’S
no
spiteinitanymore.I'm
not
just
whatIarrl.that’Sall”
Willywili
not
lettrothgetthebestofhim.Hewill
tO
hold
to
hisfailureAdmissionof
tO
failurewouldhaveled
not
suicidethe
sanle
way
sees
as
hisenduringdreamled
suicide.SOitis
admissionthattheplayurges.Willy
thetruth.Heknowshedoesn’tha、’eBen’S
oven
courage,Charley’Sgoodbusinesssense,DaveSingleman’Spersonality',his
father’S
fortitudeandingenuity.ButWillychooses,tocontinuedreaming
34
evenunto
death.
WillvdreaITls
of
success
forBiffbecausehehimselfis
a
failure
Willyrefuses
Charlev,scharitvbecausehehimselfcannotacceptthetruthofhisfailure.Thoughhehas
beentoyingwiththeideaofsuicide,Willyactuallykillshimselfonlywhenhe
hisdeath
as
a
can
disguise
gift
tO
Biff.WhenWillymustadmithisresponsibility.his
retreats
course
ofactionis
suicide.He
cannot
remaininpresentrealitylongand
tO
intoillusion,nowtodreamof
a
leavingBiffhislifeinsurancemoneydarkplacecalleddeathwhereWilly
Raymond
getstartedinbusiness.Thepromisedlandis
can
exchangehimselfforcash.
William
in
Modern
Trageay
explores:“Willy
Lomanis
a
moo_whofrom
sellingthingshaspassedtosellinghimself,andhasbecome,ineffect,acommodity'which
likeothercommoditieswill
ata
certainpointbediscardedbythelawsofeconomy.He
bringstragedydowntohimself,notbyopposingthelie,butbylivingit.’’25
ItiStobenoted,however,that
WillyLoman
never
knowshimself,andhehasbeen
nurturinghisillusionsuptOtheveryend.InthewordsofLinda’Ssadcliche’heisindeed
“a
littleboatlookingfor
a
harbor,"butheisliving
on
borrowedtime.Suicideis
a
logical
projectionofhismanyfailuresHecomesvery
can’tgoout
near
torevealingthedominatingdreamof
canle
hislifewhenhetellsBen:“Aman
thewayhe
in,Ben,amanhasgot
tO
adduptosomething."Heunconsciouslyrecognizesthissomethingwhichmakesexistencefruitfuland
one‘S
meaningful,butconsciously
heisthinkingofthetwentythousand
dollarshisfamilywouldreceivefromtheinsurancecompanyafterhisdeath.Hedied
thinking
that
all
thevaluableof
things
in
life—monour,recognition,dignity,senseof
commodities
importance.peacedollars,"like
a
mind——are
purchasable
With
twenty,thousand
diamondshininginthedark,hardandrough,’‘thefamilywouldbuydignity"
andopportunity,dreams
andsecurity.And,perhaps,unknown
tO
to
Loman,illusions!With
that
sense
ofpatheticoptimismherushedhisgrave.
OUt
Indiscussing
can
Willy’Sdeath,Millerpoints
notes
that“evendeath,theultimatenegative,’’
Lomanisfilledwith
a
be“anassertionofbravery.”He
that“Willy
joy,however
broken—hearted,’’for“hehasachieved
islovedbyhisexistence,SO
to
son
a
verypowerfulpieceofknowledge,whichisthathe
andhas
beenembracedbyhim
and
forgiven.Inthisheisgivenhis
speak—his
fatherhood,forwhichhehasalwaysstrivenandwhichuntil
nowhecouldnotachieve”26
3{
Millerhas
writlen
not
that“WillyLoman
to
hasbroken
a
lawwithoutwhoseprotectionlifeis
insupportableif
that
a
incomprehensible
himandtomanyothers;itisthelawwhichsays
no
failureinsocietyandbusinesshas
righttolive.’’27Heconceix。edoftheplay'as
a
・・race’’betweenthemetingoutofthissentenceofdeathandtheopposingsystemoflovethatBifffinaltylearns,tOOlateto
SaVe
Witty.
or
Loman’Ssuicide.1ikeOedipus’Sself-blinding
intended
to
asa
Antigone’SselSmurder,isobviously
a
gestureofthehero’Svictory
over
circumstances.Itis
act
oflove,intended
redeemhishouse.Willy’SwifeindicatesthisinterpretationintheRequiem:
Forgiveme,dear,1
canltcry.1don’tknow'whatitis,butI
can’t
cry.Idon’tunderstandit
thatyou’re
Whydidyou
anothertrip
ever
dothat?Helpme,Willy,1can’tcry.Itseemstome
just
on
lkeepexpecting
you.Will)',dear,I
cart’t
cryWhydidyoudoit?Isearchand1madethelastpayment
are
on
searchandJsearch,andIcan’tunderstandtodayToday,dear.Andthere’1lbenobody
。re
it,Willy
thehouse
home...We
freeand
clear…We’refree
We
flee..We,fefree.28
Hissuicidemaylooklikethelogicalconclusionof
differentangle,thisfinalactofsacrificemayimpresshelplessmanagainsttheillogicalitiesof
a
a
losinggame.butviewedfrom
a
US
thefirstandlastprotestof
a
a
societywhichrefuseshim
normalhappy
life.Thisprotestissomewhatof
an
affirmationofhisdreams:dreamsofsecurity,and
areno
happinessforhisfamily.Thesedreams
morethanillusions.themoodandthetotal
tO
impressionoftheplaymakethisclearenough
suicidetakes
on
theaudience;buthisdecision
to
commit
thestrengthof
a
desperatepowerfulprotestagainsttheoddsoflife.He
remains
a
salesmantotheend,sellinghislifeforthoseheloved.
Conclusion
Willyis
ability
to
an
old--fashioned
salesman,believingthatthepowerofpersonality,the
a
makeoneselflikedanywhere,is
an
sufficientquality
to
ensure
salesand
success."Becausethemanwhomakes
creates
appearanceinthebusinessworld,themanwho
never
personalinterest,isthe
nlan
whogetsahead.Belikedandyouwill
DaleCarnegie,that
want.”
HenryPopkinobservesthat“Willy…believes,with
success
isthe
rewardofmakingfriendsandinfluencing
people--being
impressive,beingpersuasive:
beingwellliked.Onebecomessuccessfulbybeingconfident,bythinkingofsuccess,andtherefore
SO
success
isallWillyknows.allhebelieves.’’29ArthurGanzsays,"Willyis
success
a
man
foolish
asto
believethat
inthebusinessworld
a
can
beachieved
not
byworkand
abilitybutbybeing‘well—liked,’by
kindofheartypopularitythatwiltopenalldoorsand
providesfavorsandpreferentialtreatment.”30Severaltimesduringtheplayhementionshe
is‘liked’mad,duringtheflashback
scenes
particularly.saysthatBiffwillalsobelikedand
not
thereforesuccessful.Hebelievesthatappearancesmatter,andwhentheydoSUCCESS,he
is
resuItin
baffled:‘’Inthegreatest
country
in
theworld
a
young
manwith
because
savs
such--personal
ofthem—he
to
attractness,getlost.”Despitethefinancialtroubles,ormaybe
on
even
stillrelies
hispersonality
next
as
thebasisofhisabilityI‘11go
tO
asa
salesman—he
Linda…I
11
knock’emdead
see
week
Hartford.I’mverywellIlkedin
Hartford.”Yetwe
thathisphilosophy
just
doesn‘tuorkanymore:theremindersfrom
tO
Lindaofthedomesticdifficultiesindicatethis
the
audience.Willy’S
ideasof“the
salesman”steinfromwhathehasheardof‘DaveSingleman’.InhisspeechhemakesitclearthatheregardsSingleman
succeedinhistrade.He
attractlargesales.
as
the
salesman--popular,and
not
usinghispopularitytothepersonalitythat
can
misjudges
hisownpotential:hehas
Healso
misjudgesthetimes
HefailstorealizethatthedaysofSinglemanhave
gone,
a
andthatthesuccessfulbusinessmanis
manlikeBen:ruthless,caringlittleforthefeelinQs
no
ofothers.neverfightingfair.Americais“slippers”canbeeasilygained,but
a
longerthecotIntryof
leisure--where
thevelyet
landofruthless
opportunism,needinghard.headed.
37
emotionlessadventureliving
as
asa
formulaforSUCCESS.Ⅵ7illy
cannot
miSjudgesthis,andsuffersforit,
hedoesinthepast.He
adaptsuccessfullytolifeinthenewAmerica
winstheday'.‘’buttheplay"offers
a
For
Willy.、、Personalityalways
contrasting
and
one
perspectiveintheexamplesofsuccessfulbusinessmanlikeCharley,Howard
Wagnen
Willy‘s
can
deadbrother,Ben,andinthereferenceto
J.P.Morgan--figures
a
whoprovethat
becomefinanciallysuccessfulwithoutexactlyhaving
winning
personality.Sothis
philosophyday.
does
not
come
to
termswithreality—_Personalitydoesnotalwayswinthe
Notes
1.Miller,一Introduction
2
to
theCollectedPlays,”TheaterEssays,143.
Bigsby.ModernAmerican
Drama,1945—1990.Cambridge:CambridgeUP,1992,125.
Drama,”TheaterEssays,73.
3.Arthur
Miller,“nPFami砂inModern
4.Ibid..73—74.
5
Stearns.DavidPatrick.“Sterling‘Salesman’andOtherShiningShowsinChicago”USA
TodayFinalEdition30Oct1998:Life,E6.
6.‘‘Preface:SalesmanAtFifty.”InDeath
York:Penguin,l999.xi7.Timebends':.4
ofaSalesman.50t"AnniversaryEdition,New
Life
NewYork:Grove.1987,179.
8ArthurMiller,Death9.Ibid.,81.
ofaSa膪sman(NewYork:Viking
Press,1
949),81.
10.JeremyHawthorn,“SalesandSolidarity,”inmllyLoman,ed.HaroldBloom(New
York:ChelseaHouse,1991),94—95.
11.Miller,“Salesman”inBering,27.
12.Introduction.Arthur
MilleriCollectedPlays.Vbl.1.NewYork:Viking.1957.23
13.Daniel
247.
Schneider,砌PPsychoana如,andtheArtist(NewYork:Farrar,Straus,1950),
14.ArthurMiller,Notebook.
15.Introduction.Arthur
Millerj
CollectedPlays,26.
16Ibid.,26.
17.Arthur
Miller,DeathofaSalesman(NewYork:VikingPress,1949),1.
18.Introduction.Arthur
19Arthur
MillerjCollectedPlays.
Sa尼sman,76,78.
Miller,Deathofa
20Ibid一64.
21.Ibid..8I.
22Ibid、,97.23Ibid..143.
39
24.Ibid一2l7
25.RaymondWilliams、“ModemTragicLiterature:FromHerotoVictim,"ModernTragedy
(Stanford:StanfordUniversityPress,1966),103-4.
26.Miller,“Introduction
27lbid.149.
tO
theCollectedPlays,”TheaterEssays,147.
28Arthur
Miller.DeathofaSalesman.139.
29.HenryPopkin,’‘ArthurMiller:TheStrangeEncounter,"SewaneeReview68,No.1
fWinterl960):48—54
30.ArthurGanz,“ArthurMiller:EdenandAfter,’’Realms
Themein
oftheXe8:Variations
Ona
ModernDrama(New
York:NewYorkUniversity
Press,1980),125.30.
Bibliography
Baym,NinaTheNorton
Antholog),ofAmericanLiterature(Fourthedition,Volume2).New
York:WW
Norton&Company,Inc.1994.
Berkowitz,GeraldM.AmericanDramaBhatia,Santosh
K.Arthur
oftheTwentiethCentury.London:Longman,1992.
Drama
as
Miller
Social
Trage妙.New
Delhi:
Amold—Heinemann.1985.
Bigsby,C.W.E,ed.ArthurMillerandCompany.London:Methuen,1990.Marino,Stephen
TheSalesmanHas
a
A
Birthday.NewYoN:UniversityPressofAmerica,⑧Inc,2000.
Bigsby,C.W.E.‘‘ArthurMiller.’’In
Confrontation
and
Commitment:A
Study
of
Contemporary'AmericanDrama.Columbia:UniversityofMissouriPress,1968.
Bloom,Harold.Arthur
Miller≥DeathofaSa&sman.New
York:ChelseaHousePublishers
1988.
Bloom,Harold.mllyLoman.NewYorkOPhiladelphia:Chelsea
HousePublishers,1991.
Brantley,Ben.“AttentionMustBePaid.Again."NewYorkTimes1lFeb.1999.E1.Broussard,Louis“Tennessee
Contemporarl’Allegory
Williamsfrom
andArthur0’Neill
Mfiler.’1
to
In
AmericanDrama:
Eugene
Tennessee
Williams
Norman:
UniversityofOklahomaPress,1962
Brustein,Robert.“ShowandTell:(Death
needsTheatre?NewDeath
ofaSalesman:Glengarry
GlenoRss.)”InWho
York:AtlanticMonthlyPress,1987.Last,BrianW.YorkNotes
PublishingCorporation,1991.
EducationLtd,1990.
ofaSalesman.Beijing:World
Carson,Neff.Arthur
Miller.Houndmills,Hampshire:Macmillan
Centola,StevenR..ed.TheAchievement
1994.
ofArthurMiller.NewEssays.Dallas:Northouse,
Clive,Barnes.“SalesmanisStill
s
Seller."^0w场rkPost
14Feb.1999.
Clurman,Harold‘‘Editor’sIntroduction.”InThePortableArthurMiller
VikingPress,1957.Corrigan,Robert
NewYork:
w,ed.ArthurMiller
ACollection
ofCritical
Essays.EnglewoodCliffs:
Prentice.1969.
4
DLIsenburv.WinifredL.“Personal
Failure.‘’In
TheTheme
of
Loneliness
in
Modern
A"_iericanDramaGainesville:UniversityofFloridaPress,1960.
Evans.Richard1.PsychologyandArthurFerres,John
Miller.NewYork:Dutton,1969.
HArthurMiller,ar咖fenceguide.Boston:GeorgePriorAssociatedPublishers,
Ltd.1979
Greenfield.ThomasAlien.WorkandtheWorkEthicinAmericanDrama,』920-j970,
Columbia:UniversityofMissouriPress,1982
Griffin,AliceUnderstandingArthurMille,‘.Columbia:University
Press,1996.
ofSomhCarolina
Harshbarger,Karl.TheBurningJungle:An
An翻ys拈ofArthurMillerl
Death
ofa
Salesman
Washington.DC:UniversityPressofAmerica,1978.
Hayashi.Tetsumaro.edArthur
MillerandTennesseeWilliams:ResearchOpportunitiesand
DissertationsAbstracts.Jefferson:McFarland,l983.
Hay7man,Ronald.ArthurMiller.London:Heinemann,1970Hogan,Robert.ArthurHurrell.John
Miller.Minneapolis:UniversityofMinnesotaPress,1964.
American
D,.ed.mo
7"1‘agedies:ReviewsandCriticism
of
Deathof
a
SalesmanandAStreetcarNamedDesireNewYork:Scribner’S.1961.
Jenson,GeorgeH.Artht∥Miller:ABibliographicalChecklist.Columbia:Faust.1976
Martin,RobertA.,edArthurMiller:Ne.。Perspectives.EnglewoodCliffs:Prentice,1982Martin,JamesJ.,ed.CriticalEssays
on
Arthur
Miler.Boston:Hall,1979.
a
Meserve.Walter
1972.
J.,ed
TheMerriH
StudiesinDeathof
Salesman.Columbus:Merrill.
Miller,Arthun“TheSalesmanHas
a
Birthday.”NewYorkTimes5Feb.1950.
Moss,Leonard.ArthurMiller.NewYork:Twayne,1967.
Murray,Edward.ArthurMiller:Dramatist.NewYork:Ungar,1972.
Nelson,Benjamin
Arthur
Miller:PortraitofaPlayulright.London:PeterOwen’1970
MillerIDEATH
OFASALEsMANandALLMYSONs.
Nourse.JoanThellusson.Arthur
SimonandSchuster,1965
Panikkar、N.Bhaskara.m硪V池c口fMorality
Highlands:Humanities,1982
andSocialHappinessinArthur
Millet:Atlantic
42
Parker,Dorothy,ed.Essays
on
Modern
AmericanDrama
Williams,Miller,Albee,and
Shepard.Toronto:UniversityofTorontoPress,1987,Porter,ThomasE
Press,l969.
Porter,ThomasE.‘‘AcresofDiamonds:Death
American
Myth
and
Modern
AmericanDrama.Detroit:WayneStateUniversity
of
a
Salesman."InMythand
Modern
Drama,Detroit:WayneStateUniversityPress,I968.
to
Roudan6,MattewC.Approaches
Teaching
Miller
iDeath
ofa
Salesman.NewYork:
TheModernLanguageAssociationofAmerica,1995.
Savran.David.Communists,Cb¨boysand
Queers:The
Politics
ofMasculinit),in
of
the
WorkofArthurMitle,‘andTenne.,sPgWilliams.Minneapolis:University
Press,1992
Schlueter,June,andJaneKFlanagan.ArthurSeivers,DavidW.Freud
on
Minnesota
MillerNewYork:Ungar,1987.
Brodd-t’ay:AHistory
of
Psychoanaly.,.isandf^PAmerican
Drama.NewYork:Hermilage,1955
Stanton.Kay."Womenand
Readings
the
AmericanDream
ofDeath
June
0厂aSalesman."Feminist
Schlueter,London
and
of
Modern
American
Dream.Ed
Toronto:AssociatedUniversityPresses.1989.Tempcrley,IIoward
dour+hal。厂American&udies(Volume
l7NumberlApril1983):m咖
LomanandTheSoul
o/G胁w
MachineTechnologyandtheCommonManLondon:
CambridgeUniversityPress,1983.
Weales,Gerald.ed.Arthto‘Miller:Deathof
LibrarySeries,l967.
a
Salesman:TextandCriticism.VikingCritical
Welland,Dennis.Arthw’3/[il]er.Edinburgh:Oliver;NewYork:Grove.196Welland,Dennis.Millep._ThePlayn’,‘ight.London:E)reMethuen,1979.White,SidneyH.Guide
to
1.
Arthu7Millel+.Columbus:Merrill,1970
常耀信.《美国文学简史》。天津:南』f:大学出版社,1990.6。
常耀信,《荚图文学选读》。天津:南丌大学出版社,1991.8。
姜岳斌.“戏剧舞台上的意识流形象:《推销员之死》的心理外化艺术及其他,”
幽文学研究》20022(p.75.79)。
《外
刘荣新,“推销员为什麽死?”《外国文学研究》1980.1—4(p.21-23)。
梅绍武,郭继德,“论戏剧创作,”《美国文学》1987总18(p.103—132)。
祁寿华,“论《推销员之死》的艺术结构及其悲剧意义,”《南京师大学报》(社会科学
版)1987.4(p53—57)。
英若诚,《英若诚译名剧五种》。沈阳:辽宁教育出版社,2001.9。
一个推销员的美国梦——《推销员之死》中威利·洛曼形象分析
作者:
学位授予单位:
路荣芬
河北师范大学
引用本文格式:路荣芬 一个推销员的美国梦——《推销员之死》中威利·洛曼形象分析[学位论文]硕士 2003