合作原则与礼貌原则
Title:
How are Cooperative Principle and Politeness Principle similar and different?
两项原则是
TwoPrinciples:
Pragmatics is a comparatively new branch of study in the area of linguistics. A general definition is that it is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. It deals with how utterances have meanings in situations. Studying pragmatics is very important. It enables us to understand what the nature of language itself is and how language is used in communication.
In order to create an effective conversation, people do follow some principles during their conversation. As follows:
a.J. Austin: Speech Act Theory(言语行为理论)
b.P. Grice: Cooperative Principle(合作原则)
c.G. Leech: Politeness Principle (礼貌原则)
d. Sperber and Wilson: Relevance Theory(关联理论)
And the Cooperative Principle (CP) and Politeness Principle (PP) are among those most familiar ones.
哲学家对语言的兴趣源于他们对语言逻辑的研究。他们发现严密的形式逻辑不能完全结实自然语言,自然语言似乎具有它自己不合乎形式逻辑的“逻辑”:
合作原则是什么:
The Cooperative Principle (CP)
We know that quite often a speaker can mean a lot more than what is said. The problem is to explain how the speaker can manage to convey more than what is said and how the hearer can arrive at the speaker’s meaning. H.P. Grice believes that there must be some mechanisms governing the production comprehension of these utterances. He suggests that there is a set of assumptions guiding the conduct of conversation. This is what he calls the Cooperative Principle (CP). The CP means that we should say what is true in a clear and relevant manner.
To be more specific, there are four maxims under this general principle:
The maxim of quantity
The maxim of quality
The maxim of relation
The maxim of manner
为了更有效更成功地完成交流活动,在会话中,人们通常会遵循一些特定的准则。进行对话,参与者必须首先有意愿去合作,否则,会话将难以进行下去。Grice 将这个准则叫做合作原则(Cooperative Principle)。指交谈双方在会话中所贯彻的尊重对方、维护友好的原则
主要包括四大准则:数量准则、质量准则、关联准则、方式准则。
礼貌原则是什么:
The Politeness Principle (PP)
The principle of politeness can explain the phenomenon of cooperation principle from another perspective.
CP maxim can be violated for various reasons. For example, the speaker wants to mislead the hearer, that is, to lie, or the speaker does not possess the adequate amount of information he is expected to provide, or the speaker simply does not want to go on with the conversation. Then we can use PP to explain. PP focuses on how to use communicative strategies to maintain or to promote interpersonal harmony during the course of communication.
然而,仅合作原则却并不能完全解释人们是如何进行会话的。它解释了会话含义是如何产生的,却并没有告诉我们为什么人们总是不直接说出他们想要表达的意思。Leech 提出的礼貌原则能够从另一个不同的角度解释合作原则所不能解释的现象。
主要包括:得体准则、慷慨准则、赞誉准则、谦虚准则、一致准则、同情准则。
相同点是什么:
Similarity
CP and PP have the same purpose.
There’s no doubt that Grice’s Cooperative Principle and Leech’s Politeness Principle are two major principles that guide the ways people communicate with each other.
So long as we combine the CP with the PP properly, we can go on quite well with our communication and achieve the mutual understanding and realize the mutual cooperation desire. Here are examples:
A:Would you like to go to the cinema with me tonight?
B:I’d like to, but I have something urgent to do tonight.
A:Mr. White, I have a flat tire .Could you give me a hand?
B:I’m very sorry, but you see, I’m very busy now.
“I’d like to,but …” follows PP. And the following sentence follows the maxim of quality of CP.
在言语交际中,交际双方的合作非常重要。常言说的“酒逢知己千杯少,话不投机半句多”就是说双方必须有着良好的交际愿望,这样才能彼此默契,言语交际才能顺利进行。在非常成功而又顺利地交谈中“合作原则”和“礼貌原则”会同时出现。例如:
在这句对话中“”是很礼貌的用法,遵循了礼貌原则里面的一致准则,之后的那句话遵循了合作原则里的真实准则。这两个原则的同时应用既准确又委婉地表达了自己的想法,使双方都不至于尴尬。再如:
不同点是什么:
Differentia
In certain circumstances, PP takes the back seat to CP. For example,
if I tell you the truth, I won’t be polite and if I want to be polite, I can’t tell you the truth. What we do under these circumstances is that we tend to strike a balance betweem the two—express some polite beliefs and then tell the truth in very soft, gentle words. Here are some examples that follow PP but violate PP.
1. Violate the maxim of quantity.
A :We’ll all miss Bill and Mary, won’t we?
B :Well, we’ll all miss Bill.
B answered A’s question in the same attitude. But B only mentioned Bill without Mary.
2.Violate the maxim of quality.
A :John has just borrowed your car.
B :Well,I like THAT.
B expressed the opposite of his real thoughts. B answered politely.
3. Violate the maxim of relation.
A :What do you think of my boyfriend?
B :His T-shirt is nice.
In order to answer politely, B did not really say what’s wrong with A’s boyfriend.
4. Violate the maxim of manner.
A :Am I right?
B :You produced a series of sounds that corresponded closely with the score of “Home sweet home”.
To keep A from losing face, B took a lot of description.
So it can be concluded that when CP is thought about more, PP has to be thought about less, and vice versa. When the truth cannot be told for politeness sake, a white li
e may be offered. In fact the PP is so powerful that people are often encouraged to violate its maxim in order to ensure a cooperative discourse。 Irony is a means to solve the conflict between the CP and PP—when the truth is too offensive to be told, an ironic utterance assumes a polite surface while delivering an unpleasant true message underneath.
(“Don‟t be too modest. Tell us everything you‟ve achieved.” “If you find anything inadequate in the paper, don‟t hesitate to point it out”).
在大多数场合,“合作原则”与“礼貌原则”并不能兼顾。例如: (一) 维护礼貌原则而违背合作原则的情况:
1、违反合作原则中真实准则。
(1) 骑了十几公里的自行车,又过了吃晚饭的时间,李老师饿了。 “李老师,
请在这里吃个便饭吧。” “不,不。不客气。我吃过饭来的。”
李老师根本没有吃晚饭,他却说“我吃过饭来的”,违反了合作原则的真实准则,但作为班主任家访是不便在学生家里吃饭的,他的话维护了礼貌原则里面的得体准则。[1]
(2)该开饭了,大家也都从客厅围坐在了餐桌前,桌上摆满了酒菜。 “实在不好意思,怠慢了,家里也没有什么好招待的,家常便饭啊。” 这是咱们中国典型的待客之道,维护了礼貌原则的谦逊准则,违反了合作原则的真实准则。但是在咱们国家,“礼多人不怪”,这种礼貌准则是受大家推崇的。
在英文交际中这样语用情境也很常见。例如:
A :John has just borrowed your car.
B:Well,I like THAT.
B 说的是反话,说话人要真正表达的意思是:“我讨厌这样不经同意就借走车子”,但他为了避免同礼貌原则的慷慨准则相抵触,不想让别人直接洞察他内心的不满,故意违反了合作原则中的真实准则。[6]
2、违反合作原则中的适量准则。
例如:
A :We’ll all miss Bill and Mary, won’t we? [7]
B:Well, we’ll all miss Bill.
B 显然违反了量的准则,因为A 的意思是想证实大家都会想念Bill 和Marry ,而B 只肯定了会想念Bill, 却有意不提Marry, 恪守了礼貌原则中的一致准则,所以故意违反了合作原则中适量准则。再如:
A :Someone has eaten the cake on this desk. B:It wasn’t me.
在这个例子中说话人早就知道是谁吃了桌子上的蛋糕,但没有说是谁,用“someone”来取代,违反了适量原则,但却维护了礼貌原则。
3、违反合作原则中的关联准则。
例如:A :What do you think of my boyfriend? [8] B:His T-shirt is nice.
B 的回答很巧妙,因为出于遵守礼貌原则中的一致准则,减少正面冲突,有意违反了关联准则,事实上B 并不觉得A 的男友怎么样,只是没有直说罢了。再如: A :小李那人太不诚实了。
B :那什么,你五一放假准备去哪儿玩?
A 在向B 抱怨小李的不诚实,但B 却把话题给转开了。要不然是B 不同意A 的看法,要不然是B 不喜欢这个话题,不习惯于公开表示对别人的批评,或者这时候小李刚巧走过来,B 把话锋一转,挽留了A 的面子。总之,B 都是出于礼貌的考虑而故意违反了合作原则。[9]
4、违反合作原则中的方式准则。
例如:
A :Where is your father? [8]
B :He is either in the house or in the garden.
B 不能准确说出他爸爸在哪里,其实他可以如实的告诉A 说“I don’t know”。但是,这样的话,很可能A 就会认为B 没有礼貌,或误会B 是不想告诉他。所以B 出于礼貌的考虑,把话说得模棱两可,既满足了A 的要求,又暗示A 他不能够准确说出爸爸到底在哪里。再如,贾芝列举了一个很典型的违反方式原则的例子:
A :Miss X sang “Home sweet home”. [7]
B :Miss X produced a series of sounds that corresponded closely with the score of “Home sweet home”.
这位演唱评论家的回答,故意违反了合作原则的方式准则,若简练的评价应该是X 小姐唱的很难听,可这样就会让X 小姐丢尽面子。为了恪守礼貌准则,评论家只好啰啰嗦嗦地进行描述。
5、同时违反合作原则的几条准则。
其实通过分析我们不难看出,Grice 的四条准则又相互重叠的地方。既然真实准则违反了,话语必然或多或少;说话相关性不够,也必然导致说话方式不当。也就是说,有时在言语交际中可能会为了维护一个原则而同时违反几个准则。例如:
中国学者李柱丞在日本与日本友人讨论《源氏物语》。中国学者谈到:《源氏物语》中的《桐壶》就是我国唐代白居易《长恨歌》的影子,而第四回的《夕颜》,同样出自白居易的《闻野砧》。日本友人问:——你以为《源氏物语》是抄袭之作?中国学者回答:——哪里,我只是认为樱花兼有梅花香。
中国的学者在回答中,用樱花和梅花做比喻,突出了礼貌原则,没有正面回应是否是“抄袭”的问题。这样的答话实际上同时违背了合作原则中的真实准则、关联准则、方式准则等。但是既照顾了对方面子,又侧面回答了对方的提问。[9]
(二)合作原则和礼貌原则在言语交际中的互相矛盾:
“陈幺妹同学,既然你回来了,就不妨一块儿听听。我的意见不一定正确,仅供
参考。”
“连您自己都觉得不一定正确,干嘛还要说呢?” ?!李老师怔了一怔,还是说了下去。
李老师对陈幺妹说话,违反的是合作原则中的真实准则,即李老师并不真的认为自己的意见不正确;遵循的是礼貌原则中的谦逊准则,即增加对自己的贬损。陈幺妹的回答,违反的是礼貌原则中的一致准则(没有尽量减少与别人在观点上的不一致),遵循的是合作原则的真实准则,即直接明确的说出自己的观点。[1] 但是我们也能很明确的知道,陈幺妹的这种说话方式是不会被大家所接受的。她虽然遵循着合作原则,但是在社交语用中,他们的谈话却不能继续下去。
以上举得这么多的例子我们不难看出,在日常交际中,很少会遇到为了维护合作原则而违反礼貌原则的。即使在有些言语中确实需要遵循合作原则中的某些准则,如需要真实,可能会因为信息的真实在一定成都上使谈话不愉快,那么说话者也尽量会在两者之间寻找平衡点,权衡之后在礼貌原则的基础上说出事情的真实结果。
而那些为维护礼貌原则违背合作原则的对话都是言语交际中的说话技巧,这些也都是在不触犯原则性问题的基础之上的。总之,人们在实际的会话过程中会把礼貌原则作为优先考虑的对象,首先遵守礼貌原则,其次再遵守合作原则,有时礼貌原则是对合作原则的援救,有时合作原则在礼貌原则面前主动让步,所以两者是相互益补的。[10]
四、结语
综上所述,合作原则是人们成功地进行交际所要遵循的原则,它在会话中起着调节说话人说话内容的作用,它是说话人在假设对方乐于合作的前提下能进行交际。但礼貌原则具有更高一层的调节作用,他维护了交谈双方的地位和友好的关系。
礼貌原则很好的解释了人们有时候为什么有意的违反合作原则而采用以间接、委婉、含蓄的方式来表达自己。合作原则和礼貌原则都是交际中很重要的语用原则,不但他们各自内部的次准则之间存在着微妙的联系,就是这两大原则之间关系也很密切。
但在实际操作中,礼貌原则的使用频率要时常多于合作原则,那是因为我们国家是“礼仪之邦”,讲求“以和为贵”,在人际交往中,言语交流中,无不体现出“礼貌”、“和谐”。