美国当代自然文学作家与一位中国古代诗人_跨文化交际个案研究_英文_

2009年1月第32卷第1期　　　　外国语J ou rna l of F oreign L anguages 　　January 2009　　　Vol . 32No . 1文章编号:1004-5139(2009) 01-0068-09　　　　　　　中图分类号:I 0-03　　　　　　　文献标识码:A

美国当代自然文学作家与一位中国古代诗人:跨文化交际个案研究

程　虹

(首都经济贸易大学外语系, 　北京100070)

摘　要:、比较与评述, 。关键词:美国自然文学; 寒山; 跨文化交际

riters and an Ancient Chi n ese Poet:

A Case i n Cross 2cultural Commun i c ati o n

CHEN G Hong

(D ep a rt m ent of Fo re i gn Language s, Cap ita lU ni ve rsity o f Econom i cs &B usi ne ss, B e iji ng 100070, Chi na ) Abstract ∶This essay atte mp ts t o describe and analyze general characteristics shared by conte mporary American nature writers and the ancient Chinese poet “Cold Mountain ”(Han 2shan ) , including styles of living as well as mutual the mes that bind these “kindred s p irits ”t ogether . Thr ough a study of this kind of si m ilarity, we see an ex periential vig or and wisdo m e merging fr o m encounters with wildness that all o w eastern and western cultures t o t ouch if not fully e mbrace . Key words ∶American Nature W riting; Cold Mountain; cr oss 2cultural communicati on

　　C li m b the m ountains and get their good tidings . N ature ’s peace w ill flo w into you as sunshine flo w s into trees . The w inds w ill blo w their o w n freshness into you, and the stor m s their energy, w hile cares w ill drop off like autum n leaves . —John M uir

M en ask the way to Cold M ountain /Cold M ountain:ther e ’s no through trail . /In summ er , ice doesn ’t m elt /The rising sun blurs in s w irling fog . /Ho w did I m ake it? /M y heart ’s not the sam e as yours . /If your heart w as like m ine /You ’d get it and be right here . —Han 2shan

For years I have been interested in the American Nature W riting 　—　an i mportant American writing about the relationship bet w een human beings and the natural world that emerged in the m iddle of the 1980s . Recently, I have found s omething interesting in this field, that is, s ome of the American writers and poets have turned their attention t o an ancient Chinese poet Cold Mountain or Han 2shan ①and tried to

①　Cold Mountain or Han 2shan (the Chinese p r onunciati on ) is the pen na me of a Chinese poet during TangDynasty . It is als o the na me of the mountain l ocated in the s outheastern China where the poet lived . Someti m e during the Tang Dynasty, the poet retired t o Cold Mountain, t ook its na me f or his pen na me and lived the life of a her m it there . Han 2shan left behind about three hundred poe m s . Legend has it that Han 2shan carved those poe m s on the r ocks and tree trunks . Those poe m s are mainly about Han 2shan ’s life on Cold Mountain and he wr ote the m with a painter ’s eye . I n short, though he adop ted the life of a her m it, Han 2shan see m s t o have lived a diverse e moti onal and intellectual life .

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underg o a cross 2cultural communicati on with the ancient Chinese poet . For examp le, a contemporary American poet Peter Stambler has translated a selection of Cold Mountain ’s poem s, entitled “Encounters w ith Cold M ountain . W hat interests me is that in the p reface of the book, Stambler exp lains that the poem s in the book are not translations in the literal or scholarly sense . “They are ”he says, “rather, encounters , perhap s conversati ons, bet w een a Tang Dynasty master and a t w entieth century American poet [16:13].”This in turn has rem inded me of another American poet and als o an American nature writer Gary Snyder . Snyder has translated t w enty 2four of Han 2shan ’s poem s which he has included in his book iprap and Cold M ountain Poe m s . W e als o kno w that Snyder is portrayed as “the American Han 2the name of Japhy Ryder in Jack Kerouac ’s novel The D har m a B um s was 2examp le is the 1999American National Book Award W inner . a on American Civil W ar, it has s ome connecti ons Han Charles the novel Cold M ountain and in the title page s “Men ask the way to Cold Mountain, Cold of the novel, I nman, “thought of building hi m a cabin on Cold back home and the goat woman he met on the way who had been living in the mountain al for 26years was portrayed as “a her m it among the cloud ”[7:65; 222].

W hat has ar oused my interest are the questi ons such as why s ome modern Americans and nature writers in particular focus their attenti on on a not very famous ancient Chinese poet Han 2shan and how this kind of co mmunication across s pace and ti me has come int o being . This essay is the p r ocess of my effort to find the kindred s p irit shared by American nature writers and Han 2shan, demonstrating that this s p irit causes them t o have a common pursuit and share a concep t of life, as well as p ractice a si m ilar writing style .

The K i n dred Sp i r it

Assu ming that co mmunicati on in the sense of culture g oes bey ond s pace and ti m e, there is, first of all, a kind of si m ilar cultural orientation bet ween the conte mporary American nature writers and Han 2shan . Under the influence of post 2modernis m, both man and nature in high 2tech America have beco me “available on de mand [13:218]. ”Having realized the dire consequences of the s o 2called modern civilization, s o me contemporary American nature writers have started to seek a wareness in nature and als o s ought to articulate a po werful ecological vision of har mony a mong nature, s ociety, and the s p irit .

Snyder points out in a lecture on “The W ilderness ”that W estern culture has much in it that is inherently wrong, that it is a culture that alienates itself fro m the wilderness outside and fr om the wilderness within and therefore, “is doomed to a very destructive behavi or, ulti mately perhap s self 2destructive behavior [2:645]. ”He considers this failure of W estern culture as one that is opposed to Buddhis m and American Indian p ri m itivis m. “A s a poet, ”Snyder says, “I hold the most archaic values on earth . They go back to the Neolithic:the fertility of the s oil, the magic of ani mals, the power 2vision in s olitude ... [2:641]”

Snyder ’s quest and vision have made his life as much an unconventional critique of the dom inant American culture as his work . Some critics even think that what has ar oused the public ’s attention to Snyder is far more than his poetry . A s Dan McLeod argues:“the examp le of Snyder ’s life and values offered a constructive, albeit undergr ound, alternative to mainstream American culture [11:10]. ”The same case

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can be made about Han 2shan .

In Chinese literature, Han 2shan is not among the most famous poets in Tang Dynasty of China . W hat has made hi m attractive t o s ome of the American nature writers is not only his poetry but als o his living style and s p iritual pursuit . It is said that Han 2shan lived a her m itic life in the Cold Mountain and inscribed his poem s on the mountain cliff walls and trees . He was said to be pure of heart and had few desires, living a free life acco mpanied by the cl ouds, the p ines and the r ocks . W e can see his peaceful state of the m ind by the foll owing poem s:

I wanted a good p lace to settle:

Cold Mountain would be safe .

L ight wind in a hidden p ine —

L isten close 2the s ound gets better .

　3　3　　　　3　　　33

Once at No 2up I s the r ock cliff,

Taking co mes, like a drifting boat [14:41; 55].

A thousand years ago, Han 2shan went t o Cold Mountain t o escape fr om the hustle and bustle of life and t o seek a peaceful existence that will p r ovide hi m with s p iritual freedom in a large sense . Maybe he would never have dreamed that a thousand years later his life style would have ar oused a res onance acr oss the A tlantic among the Americans who are tired out by modern life . Snyder has regarded Han 2shan as his “poetic alter ego ”[11:211]. He describes his Northern California homestead address in bi oregi onal ecological ter m s as “watershed:west slope of the northern Sierra Nevada, south sl ope of the east 2west running ridge above the south fork, at the level of Back oak m ixed with Ponder osa p ine ”[9:111]. Ann H. Z winger felt content when she had reached, as Sigurd O lsen wrote, “the point where days are governed by daylight and dark, rather than by schedules, where one eats if hungry and sleep s when tired, and becomes comp letely i mmersed in the ancient rhythm s, then one begins to live ”[6:645].In what we call a busy 2bee modern society when man ’s life is comp letely at the mercy of the cl ock or the ti m etable, it is not sur p rising that peop le will g o back to Han 2shan t o seek for and app reciate his more si mp le and organic values .

A s if it is a refurbished versi on of Han 2shan ’s life style, going int o the mountains or returning t o the wilderness has once again become the fashion among modern Americans, especially the American nature writers . Buoyed by the tradition of Thoreau going into the woods ofW alden Pond, John Muir went int o the Yosem ite Mountain; A ldo Leopold went t o a deserted far m in W isconsin; Edward Abby entered the deserts in U tah and Annie D illard went to the Tinker Creek in the B lue Mountains . Their going t o the wilderness is actually a journey of “com ing home ”, a trek of seeking r oots . W hat they are looking for is the s olitude of m ind totally free of the noisy material world . In the emp ty deserts where there are no humans or no cultivated fl owers but only the red rocks, cactus and rattle snakes, Abby said with deep feelings:“L ife has come to a standstill, at least for the hour . I n this forgotten p lace the tree and I wait on the shore of ti me, temporarily free fr om the force of motion and p rocess and the surge toward 2what? Something called future ? [1:155]”He ins p ired us by stating that “if we could learn to love s pace as deep ly as we are no w obsessed with ti me, we m ight discover a new meaning in the phrase to live like men [1:68]. ”W e may 70

well say that both Han 2shan and his fell ow American nature writers have found how t o live a decent life or to be a decent human being fr om their first 2hand experience in nature .

Another si m ilarity that links the American nature writers and Han 2shan is the sense of p lace . For examp le, we cannot separate the actual poet “Cold Mountain ”fro m the p lace where he lived, for not only is this both the p lace of his her m itage and his adop ted name, but is als o a descri p tion of the state of his m ind . So in this sense, the poet and the mountain have become al most identical . The s p irit of Han 2shan rem inds us not only of a pers on but of a fresh and lively compositi on of the waving grasses, oating cl ouds, flying birds, mur muring br ooks, ancient r ocks and snow 2covered mountains all 2shan ”is indeed the blend of landscape and s oulscape . Fr om this of American nature writers, there will appear before us so me ”:Pond; Muir and Yosem ite Mountain; Abby and s beach at Cape Cod; and T . T . W illiam the Salt . of writing, al most every writer has a writing . L 2they have deep ly rooted them selves in the land where they live . to without p lace but rather the self in p lace . A s John Burr oughs wrote:“One ’s own comes in ti me to be a s ort of outlying part of hi m self:he has s owed hi m self br oadcast upon it, and it reflects his own moods and feelings; he is sensitive t o the verge of the horizon:cut those trees, and he bleeds; mar those hills, and he suffers [4:178].”

An Enchan t m en t w ith the M oun ta i n s

Basically, Han 2shan is a mountain man . W e can learn this fr om his adop ted name, his poem s and his her m itic experience among the dep ths of Cold Mountain . Actually, he has al most become a sy mbol of the mountain or the sp irit of the mountain . It is interesting to find that the American nature writers als o have an enchant m ent with the mountains . Ti mothy Gray comments that Snyder translated Han 2shan ’s poem s “by means of his own experiences in the Sierras . These poem s are s omething more than translati ons p recisely because Snyder renders them as a melding of Han 2shan ’s Chinese Ch ’an Buddhist mountain s p irit and trickster mentality and Snyder ’s own mountain wilderness meditation and labor activities[11:62].”

John Muir, the forerunner of the American nature writing, traveled far and wild among the mountains in the American west during his life . H is first book was entitled “My First Summer in the Sierra ”and he hi m self was called “John of the mountain ”in the literary circle . A lthough A ldo Leopold is not a mountain man, he advocates “thinking like a mountain ”. In American nature writing, we see a great deal of titles like “The Grand of OurMountains ”or “ReadingMountain ’s Home ”. So why are these writers so enchanted with the mountains?

Generally s peaking, mountains stand sharp ly as sy mbolic opposite t o the metr opolis . They rem ind us of the p ri mordial wilderness that is t otally different fr om a city 2centered civilizati on . Both Han 2shan and the American nature writers go to the mountains t o make a s p iritual p ilgri mage and to exp ress a unique concep tion . W e can see this fr om one of Han 2shan ’s poem s:

Sp ring 2water in the green creek is clear

Moonlight on Cold Mountain is white

Silent kno wledge —the s p irit is enlightened of itself

Contemp late the void:this world exceeds stillness [14:47].

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What Han 2shan tried to get fr o m the mountains is “the silent kno wledge ”or the s p irit of the mountain . Let us try t o see more directly ho w American nature writers understand the meaning of the mountains . When Muir first went t o the Y ose mite, he was co mp letely conquered by a confr ontation with what he called “Nature ’s cathedral ”:“Yonder, t o the east w ard of our camp gr ove, stands one of Nature ’s cathedrals, hewn fro m the living r ock, al m ost conventional in for m, about t wo thousand feet high, nobly adorned with s p ires and p innacles, thrilling under floods of sunshine as if alive like a gr ove 2temp le, and well named ‘Cathedral Peak ’. ”He went on to exp lain that that was his first ti me he had been at church in California and that “all the world seemed a church and the mountains altars ”[10:146; 250]. exp ressed was his religious res pect for the mountains, then Annie D ’s contained more undefined s p iritual sensibilities:“I look to the blue and mute and rap t [5:201]. ”And in can heave your s p irit int o a mountain and the it back as s ome creeks will . The creeks are the there . But the mountains are home [5:3]. ”Joseph Wood Krutch of mountains t o that of one ’s self “Not t o have known 　—　as most men have not 　—　either the mountain or the desert is not to have known one ’s self . Not t o have kno wn one ’s self is to have known no one [6:643].”To Han 2shan and the American nature writers as well, mountains are their home and their s p ring of thoughts .

Mountains als o serve as a synony m of “wilderness ”. I think it is the wildness in Han 2shan that draws peop le ’s attenti on t o his work . Snyder has cited the foll owing poem by Han 2shan to show that he is the veritable model of a recluse and compared the Cold Mountain to “his (Han 2shan ’s ) s paci ous home ”[15:205].

I settled at Cold Mountain long ago,

A lready it seem s like years and years .

Freely drifting, I p r owl the woods and stream s

And linger watching things them selves .

Men don ’t get this far into the mountains,

W hite cl ouds gather and billow .

Thin grass does for a mattress,

The blue sky makes a good quilt .

Happy with a st one underhead

Let heaven and earth go about their changes [14:43].

M ingled with nature or wilderness, Han 2shan had become comp letely free of the world ’s ties and in s ome sense eternal with the Cold Mountain or “being at home in the whole universe . ”A lthough more than a thousand years have passed since his death, now we can still hear his invitation fr om the wilderness:“W ho can leap the world ’s ties —And sit with me among the white clouds [14:44]?”

Definitely so meone has ans wered Han 2shan ’s call . A s I have mentioned earlier, Gary Snyder has been portrayed as “the American Han 2shan ”under the name of Japhy Ryder in Jack Kerouac ’s The D har m a B um s . He lived in his little shack, drank green tea and translated Han 2shan ’s poem s . W e have learned from the novel that “the Japhies of the world go p r owling in the wilderness t o hear the voice crying in the wilderness, to find the ecstasy of the stars, t o find the dark mysteri ous secret to the origin of faceless 72

wonderless crapul ous civilizati on[8:39].”Snyder is famous for his essays ’collection The P ractice of the W ild , in which he points out:“W e need a civilization that can live fully and creatively t ogether with wildness [15:169].”I f wilderness to Han 2shan suggests so mething like freedom, then to contemporary American nature writers, it means a sy mbol of the civilizati on in a higher for m and a s ource for deep thoughts and insp irati on . Fr om the lines “Happy with a stone underhead %Let heaven and earth go about their changes ”by Han 2shan to Snyder ’s comments that “Consci ousness, m ind, i m aginati on and language are fundamentally wild ”[15:260],we see a communication of eastern and western culture oss ti m e and s pace .

I n Na ture ’sW orkshop

The theme of Han 2shan ’s poem s, use and human beings . D ifferent from any other poets hist ory, Han 2shan, the poet, his poetry and m ost the same thing in peop le ’s memories . The American nature the hand, have als o chosen the relationshi p bet w een nature and human beings as their theme . They are, like Han 2shan, peop le who learn how to write in Nature ’s workshop.

W hen talking about Henry Beston and his book The O uter m ost House , Sher man Paul compared Best on ’s outer most house in the solitude beach of Cape Cod to that of Han 2shan in the Cold Mountain:“He (Beston ) found hi m self in the cos mos, in ‘a house, ’as Han Shan said, ‘without beam s or walls . ’[12:119]”The aforementioned poem by Han 2shan, goes like this:

Cold Mountain is a house

W ithout beam s or walls .

The six doors left and right are open

The hall is blue sky [14:52].

I f Han 2shan ’s house is a house with six open doors, then it is interesting t o find that the larger r oom of Best on ’s Fo ’castle has seven windows . So when Han 2shan enj oyed the view of the blue sky in his hall, Best on had “s omething rather like an inside out 2of 2doors ”[3:6-7]in his house . Fr om such parallel instance, we find that though living in the different ti me and environments, Han 2shan and Beston share a common liking:to live a life that is close t o nature and to participate in the elemental cos m ic world . Not only that, they have taken advantage of their positions of being poets or writers to put what they have experienced in nature int o words and dis p lay in front of us a grand view of cos mos where hu man beings get al ong with nature . They are, we may well say, artists com ing of age in Nature ’s workshop. Nobody will forget the vivid p icture of Cold Mountain as dep icted in one of Han 2shan ’s poem s:

W hen the moon shines, water s parkles clear

W hen wind bl ows, grass s wishes and rattles .

On the bare p lum, flowers of snow

On the dead stump, leaves of m ist [14:50].

The si m ilar char m may be found in Beston ’s The O uter m ost House :“M id 2Oct ober and the land birds have gone . A few s parr ows linger in the marshes . The p lum bushes have lost their leaves . W alking the beach, I read winter in the new shapes of the clouds ”[3:34].

However, the writings of Han 2shan and the American nature writers are not merely the descrip ti on of

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the landscapes . They p resent their s oulscape as well . W e find there is al ways a deep meditation with nature in Han 2shan ’s poem s . The foll owing is one of his poem s about the nightscape of the Cold Mountain:

However remote in the night ’s dep ths,

Stars incline to wards each other in constellations .

Am id the shadows of many r ocks, I raise but one lamp,

For the moon arches, drawing me out

I n radiance, every facet coolly lit .

It is my m ind, suspended [16:83].

Now let ’s see Best on ’s descri p tion of the nightscape . A t a new door opens for the human s p irit . . . ”He co mpared the t p bet ween horizons acr oss eternal seas of s pace ti me ”He sighed with emotion, “the s p irit of man is, by a of emoti onal dignity, and poetry makes its own 173-174].In the m idst of the peaceful night, during the the t w inkling with stars, both Han 2shan and Best on have found a corres peaceful state of the m ind and the satisfaction of the communicati on . W e may well say that in this sense both have obtained an art of peace, and reached the perfection of culture .

Free of those rules and for m s of classical poetic composition, Han 2shan wrote his poem s in a very p lain style or in other words in the language of common folk and for med the unique “Han 2shan style ”. It is a style that is close to nature . American nature writers p ractice a si m ilar style when they are describing nature . For examp le, Thoreau advocated a “tawny grammar ”[17:546]and he p raised a poet “who could i mp ress the winds and stream s into his service, to speak for hi m; who nailed words to their p ri m itives senses, as far mers drive down stakes in the s p ring ... who derived his words as often as he used them, %trans p lanted them to his page with earth adhering to their r oots [17:540]. ”Edward Abbey writes, as one critic put it, “natural science with a s oul, poetry rooted in r ocks and trees and coy otes ”[2:690].Patrick Murphy, when talking about Snyder ’s writing style, comments that “Snyder wants his readers t o think about ‘wild writing, ’with the idea that the natural world should instruct writers about their craft . ”In Snyder ’s op ini on, “good writing is ‘wild ’language ”[11:171].

A lthough contemporary American nature writers and the ancient Chinese poet Han 2shan share s ome si m ilarities, they of course differ fr om each other because hist orically they live in different ti mes and s paces after all . One of Han 2shan ’s poem s may exp lain one of the differences . It goes like this:“Men ask the way to Cold Mountain, Cold Mountain:there ’s no thr ough trail . ... How did Imake it? My heart ’s not the same as yours . I f your heart was like m ine, You ’d get it and be right here [14:42]. ”I n the poem, Cold Mountain serves not only as a geographical mountain but als o as a s p iritual one . One needs both physical and mental strength t o reach that altitude . Snyder closes out his translation of Han 2shan ’s poem s with the quotation:“Try and make it t o Cold Mountain ”[14:60]. Mur phy takes it as “a challenge to others ”and he exp lains later “But then Snyder at age t wenty 2eight, publishing the translations he has worked on for several years, does not have the same wealth of ex perience or years of meditational disci p line that the old Han 2shan has under his belt ”[11:62].On the other hand, however, contemporary American nature writers have advantages over Han 2shan . W hen Han 2shan wrote naturemore than a thousand years ago, he did it only fr om his own experience among the mountains and carved the poem s in the rocks or the 74

bamboos . I n contrast, contemporary American nature writers, besides their first 2hand experiences in nature, are ar med with modern scientific knowledge and have a broad ecol ogical vision . For instance, D illard has the knowledge that in the top inch of forest soil, there are “an average of 1, 356living creatures p resent in each square foot ”. So when she was sitting under a sycamore by Tinker Creek one day, she felt “alive on the intricate earth under trees ”and deepened her relationship t o the ecological system [5:94]. A lso, since the contemporary American nature writers live in modern society and have suffered great deal from the threat of the envir onmental crisis, their writings seem more radical than that of the old Han 2shan . Be that as it may, it is a very interesting and thought 2p r ovoking that s contemporary American nature writers focus their attention on an .

“The world to 2day is sick to its thin bl ood for the hands, for water welling from the earth, for the . I n my world of beach and dune these elemental p their arch there moved an inco mparable . Beston wrote in The Outer most House and exp lained the reas on why he live year on the des olate beach of Cap Cod [3:10].I think what Beston have written s ome light on the questi on why s ome contemporary American nature writers focus their attenti on on the ancient Chinese poet Han 2shan . Actually, Beston was worrying about the loss of p lace and r oot of the peop le in the modern s ociety . The l oss is a political and s p iritual concern . I nsulated, air 2conditi oned, we have cut off our connecti on with the earth and our system s have sp lit away fr om the system s of nature or the order of nature . The environmental crisis of the modern s ociety is not only an econom ic and political one, but a s p iritual one as well . W e need to reconnect us t o the earth ’s basic rhythm s, to the p ri mal natural s ources of our beings and to the world that is older, larger and greater than ours . W e need to learn from the ancient peop le the wisdo m we have lost . W e need to rediscover the ancient values of dignity, beauty, and poetry which are born of the mystery and beauty of the natural world . Above all, we need a civilizati on, as Gary Snyder puts it, “that can live fully and creatively t ogether with wildness ”[15:169]. For the contemporary American nature writers, such envir onmental res ponsibility comes fr om peop le who work and live together in their p laces and who share comm it ments to p laces and honor their r oots . A s a result, Han 2shan serves as a good examp le, for both the Cold Mountain, the mountain itself and Han 2shan, the pers on have become al most identical by uniting wild nature and culture thr ough Han 2shan ’s experience and p ractice in the Cold Mountain .

As I have tried to de monstrate, we find that though living in different ti m es and s paces, many contemporary American nature writers and the ancient Chinese poet Han 2shan share a mutual understanding . Thr ough a study of this kind of si m ilarity, we see an ex periential vig or and wisdo m e merging fr o m encounters with wildness that all o w eastern and western cultures to t ouch if not fully e mbrace .

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收稿日期:2008-06-15

作者简介:程虹(1957-) 女, 博士, 教授。研究方向:美国文学、英语教学。

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《外国语》编辑部

2009年1月

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