英语的逻辑关系

1, 因果关系是所有学生都喜欢用的一种最为常见的逻辑关系，这种关系的意思都很明白，那就是两种“什么原因导致了什么结果。或者是什么结果是由什么原因带来的”但是很多同学都会错，又常常表现在原因状语从句当中。比如说写成这样：A lot of surfing leads to children ignore their study.亦或是：She failed her exam because of she was in love with a bad boy.

1，后只跟短语的词语

原因在前结果在后词语后跟结果的：cause, lead to, result in, give rise to, bring about, give cause for,induce to(此词后加好的结果)„

结果在前原因在后词语后跟原因的：because of, be due to, owing to, thanks to, stem from, as a result of, in the light of,on account of, in view of, in consideration of„

2，后可跟句子的词语

because, as, for, since, the reason why, considering that, seeing that, inasmuch as,forasmuch as, as a result(+结果)„

同学们在用这些词语表示因果关系的时候，注意两点：因果谁在先、后面用短语还是句子。只有在清楚这两点之后，才能决定用哪些词语。看起来很复杂，看完下面的例子就很明白了

1，如果要写出这么一句话：因为有你，我不会担心过马路; 因为有你，我学会了玩不受伤。(Because of You歌词)

Because of you, I never stray too far from the sidewalk. Because of you, I learned to play on the safe side so I don’t get hurt. 这里如果要用because，就写成：Because you are here, I never stray too far from the sidewalk.

2, 看个复杂一点的：For the moon never beams without bringing me dreams of the beautiful Annabel Lee. （Annabel Lee）以for引导的是一个句子。

规律总结：在上述的常见的因果逻辑关系的词语中，除了cause外，只要是短语的结尾不是as，后面则一定只能跟短语，其余单个的单词或者不是以介词结尾的短语和以as结尾的短语都是要加句子的。

2, 条件关系的意思是，在一个特定的条件下，一事情或者状况将会发生。而If表示正面的条件，就是标准的“如果”的意思。而unless表示的是反面的条件，意为“除非，如果不（if„not）”。

区别：If everyone joins in the army of protecting the environment, our ecosystem would be maintained. 和 The ecosystem would not be maintained unless everyone joins in the army of protecting the environment. 其实也相当于将条件放在前或者放在后的区别，后者有点装酷，更加的体现了英语的表达习惯。

注意：if 引导的从句既可以表示好的条件，也可以表示不好的条件；表示好的条件时，可用providing that, provided that, on condition that, in that等替换，而表示不好的条件时，不可用这些词替换，可用so/as long as. 例如：

If it rains tomorrow, we shall be free from having classes. (对于很多同学老说，不用上课是好事，可以用上述词语替换)

If it rains tomorrow, we shall delay our classes to the day after tomorrow. （只是推迟，不是好事，所以不用上述词语）

除此之外，还有一些谚语可以不要上述任何引导词但是可以表示条件意义。如：

No pains, no gains.不劳无获。 Sow nothing, reap nothing.不播种，不收获。

Once bit, twice shy. 一朝被蛇咬，十年怕草绳。

Where there is a will, there is a way. 有志者事竟成。

3，例证关系就是通俗意义上的举例子说明问题的方法。在写作文的时候举例子这种方法很常用。旨在说明一抽象的概念或者解释一个不大清楚的观点，但是要记住，任何你所举的例子都是要为你该段的中心论点服务，切不可跟俄罗斯人的思维一样风马牛不相及。

例如：剑7 P.167 Secondly, when someone feels they are improving or developing their skills through training opportunities, for example, then there is a sense of progression and purpose that rewards a worker.

剑7， P163. Sport stars and pop stars, for example, are soon replaced by the next younger, more energetic, generation, while the good looks of most film stars quickly fade.

表示例证的词语有：for example，take„as an example，for instance，like，namely, such as

4，让步关系通俗的讲就是“退一步讲话”的意思。翻译成中文就是 “虽然，尽管，即使”的意思。即先做出假设性的让步，做出一个推断或者结论，从而引起下文。常见的引导词有：though, although, even if, if, even though/ whatever, whenever, wherever, however„

其它表示让步的方法：

1，the+形容词最高级

The wisest man cannot know everything. 即使是最聪明的人也不能什么都知道。

2，It is true that„

It is true that he is young, but he is clever.

3, 动词+动词

Sink or swim, I won’t give up.

4, admitting (that)和assuming( that)

Assuming (that) she is clever, she can’t succeed without working hard. 等等

5, 对比关系就是将两者进行对比比较。行文中的对比和语法书上的比较级和比较状语从句是有差别的。语法书上的比较级着重指句子当中的比较情况，又分为同级比较和单纯的两者异级比较。而文中的比较按照子毅同志的教材来看，他把其分为了三种：过去跟现在的对比，理论跟现实的对比以及假设跟结果的对比，笔者认为这样的分法还是可取的。所以这里就分成两个部分来谈。

1，比较级当中的比较：

比较级单独使用如：Are you feeling better today? / Be more careful next time.

be+ adj.的比较级 than如：She made greater success than you do. / I am happier than I have ever been. 注意一些特殊的用法：more and more, the more„the more, more than

同级比较：as„as / not so„ as 如：I consider the idea as reasonable as that one.

He is as brave as a lion at that moment. / I am not so experienced as you expect.

I know you better than he does.

2, 行文中的对比关系：

现在跟过去的对比：尤其适用于题目中问道古今相关的话题，比如说电脑广泛被使用现今社会和在发明电脑之前的社会的异同点，在比如说小作文的地图题当中，一个地方的过去和现在的房屋分布情况的对比，这些时候都可能会用到古今的对比。常见的词语有：in the past , in the last several decades, ?years ago, during the earlier times / nowadays, recently, at present;

理论和现实的对比词语：theoretically speaking, from what people believed in their minds / in the real world, in reality, actually;

假设和结果对比的词语：if， hypothetically„

5)逻辑关系线索

(a)并列与递进关系: and, or, also，neither…nor…,either…or…,likewise, similarly, equally, in the same way, that is to say ,as well as, the same …as,besides, additionally, furthermore, moreover, in

addition to ,what is more正门

例(大纲样题)共济网

43 There were also crab-like creatures, whose bodies were covered with a horny substance. The body segments each had two pairs of legs, one pair for walking on the sandy bottom, the other for swimming. The head was a kind of shield with a pair of compound eyes, often with thou

sands of lenses. They were usually an inch or two long but some were 2 feet.

共济网

［A］ The shellfish have a long history in the rock and many different kinds are known.专 ［B］ Nevertheless, we know a great deal about many of them because their bones and shells have been preserved in the rocks as fossils, From them we can tell their size and shape, how

they walked, the kind of food they ate.考

［C］ The first animals with true backbones were the fishes, first known in the rocks of 375 million years ago. About 300 million years ago the amphibians, the animals able to live both on l

and and in water, appeared. They were giant, sometimes 8 feet long, and many of them lived in the swampy pools in which our coal seam, or layer, formed. The amphibians gave rise to the reptiles and for nearly 150 million years these were the principal forms of life on land, in the sea,

and in the air.业

［D］ The best index fossils tend to be marine creatures. These animals evolved rapidly and

spread over large over large areas of the world.3362 3039

［E］ The earliest animals whose remains have been found were all very simple kinds and lived in the sea. Later forms are more complex, and among these are the sea-lilies, relations of the star-fishes, which had long arms and were attached by a long stalk to the sea bed, or to rock

s.同济大学四平路

［F］ When an animal dies, the body, its bones, or shell, may often be carried away by streams into lakes or the sea and there get covered up by mud. If the animal lived in the sea its body would probably sink and be covered with mud. More and more mud would fall upon it until th

e bones or shell become embedded and preserved.

研

［G］ Many factors can influence how fossils are preserved in rocks. Remains of an organism may be replaced by minerals, dissolved by an acidic solution to leave only their impression, or si

mply reduced to a more stable form.

正门

【解析】［E］本题选择的特征词是"also"。"also"表并列关系，语义上对前文进行补充和说明，这就证明本题前面的句子中应当与also后的crab-like creatures(类似螃蟹的生物)相并列的内容，或者出现了有关"类似螃蟹的生物"的描述的信息。比较选项可以发现，选项［E］中出现的信息Later forms are more complex, and among these are the sealilies, relations of the starfishes, which had long arms and were attached by a long stalk to the sea bed, or to rocks描述了一些生物具有"类似螃蟹的信息"： had long arms and were attached by a long stalk to the sea bed, or to rock(有长腕且通过长柄

附着于海床或岩石上)。因此，选项 ［E］是正确答案。 336 26038

(b)因果关系：because, for, since, as, thus, hence, therefore, so, so…that, consequently, accordingly, due to, thanks to, as a result ,because of ,in that, for this reason, of course336260 37

例(2005年真题)同济大学四平路

Rather than, say, Quebec, negotiating on behalf of seven million people, the national agency would negotiate on behalf of 31 million people. Basic economics suggests the greater the potenti

al consumers, the higher the likelihood of a better price.kaoyantj

43336260 37

A small step has been taken in the direction of a national agency with the creation of the Canadian Co-coordinating office for Health Technology Assessment, funded by Ottawa and the provinces. Under it, a Common Drug Review recommends to provincial lists which new drugs should

be included. Predictably, and regrettably, Quebec refused to join.021-

［A］ Quebec's resistance to a national agency is provincialist ideology. One of the first advocates for a national list was a researcher at Laval University. Quebec's Drug Insurance Fund has

seen its costs skyrocket with annual increases from 14.3 percent to 26.8 per cent!kaoyantj ［B］ Or they could read Mr. Kirby's report: "The substantial buying power of such an agency would strengthen the public prescription-drug insurance plans to negotiate the lowest possible pur

chase prices from drug companies."网络督察

［C］ What does "notional" mean? Roy Romanow and Senator Michael Kirby recommended a

federal-provincial body much like the recently created National Health Council.112室

［D］ The problem is simple and stark health-care costs have been, are, and will continue to

increase faster than government revenues.3362 3039

［E］ According to the Canadian Institute for Health Information, prescription drug costs have risen since 1997 at twice the rate of overall healthcare spending. Part of the increase comes from drugs being used to replace other kinds of treatments. Part of it arises from new drugs costin

g more than older kinds. Part of it is higher prices.辅导

［F］ So, if the provinces want to run the health-care show, they should prove they can run it, starting with an interprovincial health list that would end duplication, save administrative costs, prevent one province from being played off against another, and bargain for better drug prices. ［G］ Of course, the pharmaceutical companies will scream. They like divided buyers, they can lobby better that way. They can use the threat of removing jobs from one province to another. They can hope that, if one province includes a drug on its list, the pressure will cause others to include it on theirs. They wouldn't like a national agency, but selfinterest would lead them to

deal with it.

【解析】［G］试题前的一段讲到the national agency would negotiate on behalf of 31 million people. Basic economics suggests the greater the potential consumers, the higher the likelihood of a better price(全国的机构是代表3100万人去谈判，潜在的顾客的人数越多，得到底价的可能性越高)。通过这段话可以得知，建立全国性机构后，医药的价格会下降，医药公司会做出反应，即上一个段落和本题之间是因果关系。因此选项［G］是正确答案。选项［G］中的of course 起承上启下的作用，表达了某种因果关系，从of course后面的语义来看，表达的正是关于医药公司的内容：Of course, the pharmaceutical companies will scream，这儿的scream 原作"尖叫"解，在这里作"高声抱怨"解。因此选项［G］

是正确答案。

同时，本题还可以根据和后面一个段落之间的关系做出选择。从后面一个段落的第一句话A small step has been taken in the direction of a national agency来看，讨论的是如何解决国家机构的问题，这是一个表示结果的句子，由此可以推知要填入的试题中一定会出现关于如何对待national agency的论述。选项［G］的最后一句话They wouldn't like a national agency, but selfinterest would lead them to deal with it表达的正是这个含义，不论从内容上，还是从措辞上和下文的内容非常的衔接，因此是正确答

案。

(c)转折让步关系：but, however, yet, on the contrary, by contrast, on the other hand, unfortunately, while, whereas, unlike, rather than ,instead of, it is true that,of course,although, though, even tho

ugh, even if, nevertheless, despite, in spite of

例(大纲样题)

Long before Man lived on the Earth, there were fishes, reptiles, birds, insects, and some mammals. Although some of these animals were ancestors of kinds living today, others are now extin

ct, that is, they have no descendants alive now.

41 Very occasionally the rocks show impression of skin, so that, apart from color, we can build up a reasonably accurate picture of an animal that died millions of years ago. That kind of rock in which the remains are found tells us much about the nature of the original land, often of th

e plants that grew on it, and even of its climate.

［A］ The shellfish have a long history in the rock and many different kinds are known. ［B］ Nevertheless, we know a great deal about many of them because their bones and shells have been preserved in the rocks as fossils. From them we can tell their size and shape, how

they walked, the kind of food they ate.

［C］ The first animals with true backbones were the fishes, first known in the rocks of 375 million years ago. About 300 million years ago the amphibians, the animals able to live both on land and in water, appeared. They were giant, sometimes 8 feet long, and many of them lived in the swampy pools in which our coal seam, or layer, formed. The amphibians gave rise to the reptiles and for nearly 150 million years these were the principal forms of life on land, in the sea,

and in the air.

［D］ The best index fossils tend to be marine creatures. These animals evolved rapidly and

spread over large over large areas of the world.

［E］ The earliest animals whose remains have been found were all very simple kinds and lived in the sea. Later forms are more complex, and among these are the sea-lilies, relations of the star-fishes, which had long arms and were attached by a long stalk to the sea bed, or to rock

s.

［F］ When an animal dies, the body, its bones, or shell, may often be carried away by streams into lakes or the sea and there get covered up by mud. If the animal lived in the sea its body would probably sink and be covered with mud. More and more mud would fall upon it until th

e bones or shell become embedded and preserved.

［G］ Many factors can influence how fossils are preserved in rocks. Remains of an organism may be replaced by minerals, dissolved by an acidic solution to leave only their impression, or si

mply reduced to a more stable form.

【解析】［B］从试题前后的语义逻辑关系来看，试题前面的一段话表明的信息是Although some of these animals were ancestors of kinds living today, others are now extinct, that is, they have no descendants alive now(尽管这些动物是某些活到现在的物种的祖先，但有的动物却灭绝了，也就是说它

们现在已经没有子孙后代活在这个世界上)。试题的后面的句子表明的信息是 Very occasionally the rocks show impression of skin, so that, apart from color, we can build up a reasonably accurate picture of an animal that died millions of years ago(有时候这些石头可以将它们的外表展现出来，这样，除了颜色我们就可以对那些数百年前死掉的生物形成一个比较准确的印象)。从语义关系里看，前文中说动物灭绝了，暗含的意思是我们不可能得到这些动物的任何信息，而后面的句子说我们可以对这些动物形成准确的印象，因此，前后文形成了明显的对比关系，四个选项中能够表达这种关系的，只有选项［B］。 本题还可以采用词汇的复现来确定正确答案，从试题后面的句子Very occasionally the rocks show impression of skin来看，rocks的前面使用了定冠词the修饰，这表明rocks在前文中一定出现过，但我们考察第一段时发现，第一段中并没有出现关于rocks的内容，因此可以确定，关于rocks的内容一定出现在要填入的试题中。选项［B］ Nevertheless, we know a great deal about many of them because their bones and shells have been preserved in the rocks as fossils. From them we can tell their size and shape, how they walked, the kind of food they ate中出现了动物的骨骼被保存在the roc

ks中，变成化石的论述，由此可以判断选项［B］是正确答案。

(d)时间关系：afterwards, at first, at last, finally, first, firstly, in the first place, to start with，in the mean time, last, later, next, second, secondly, then, third, thirdly, to begin with以及一些具体的时

间。

例(大纲样题)

…Of these, the ammonites are very interesting and important. They have a shell composed of many chambers, each representing a temporary home of the animal. As the young grew larger it grew a new chamber and sealed off the previous one. Thousands of these can be seen in the

rocks on the Dorset Coast.

45

About 75 million years ago the Age of Reptiles was over and most of the groups died out. The mammals quickly developed, and we can trace the evolution of many familiar animals such as the elephant and horse. Many of the later mammals, though now extinct, were known to primiti

ve man and were featured by him in cave paintings and on bone carvings.

［A］ The shellfish have a long history in the rock and many different kinds are known. ［B］ Nevertheless, we know a great deal about many of them because their bones and shells have been preserved in the rocks as fossils, From them we can tell their size and shape, how

they walked, the kind of food they ate.

［C］ The first animals with true backbones were the fishes, first known in the rocks of 375 million years ago. About 300 million years ago the amphibians, the animals able to live both on land and in water, appeared. They were giant, sometimes 8 feet long, and many of them lived in the swampy pools in which our coal seam, or layer, formed. The amphibians gave rise to the reptiles and for nearly 150 million years these were the principal forms of life on land, in the sea,

and in the air.

［D］ The best index fossils tend to be marine creatures. These animals evolved rapidly and

spread over large over large areas of the world.

［E］ The earliest animals whose remains have been found were all very simple kinds and lived in the sea. Later forms are more complex, and among these are the sea-lilies, relations of the star-fishes, which had long arms and were attached by a long stalk to the sea bed, or to rock

s.

［F］ When an animal dies, the body, its bones, or shell, may often be carried away by streams into lakes or the sea and there get covered up by mud. If the animal lived in the sea its body would probably sink and be covered with mud. More and more mud would fall upon it until th

e bones or shell become embedded and preserved.

［G］ Many factors can influence how fossils are preserved in rocks. Remains of an organism may be replaced by minerals, dissolved by an acidic solution to leave only their impression, or si

mply reduced to a more stable form.

【解析】［C］从文章的整体结构看，这里需要一个内容的"高潮"：前面几段讲的都是动物不断的进化过程，而下文中表示时间的短语"About 75 million years ago the Age of Reptiles was over" 很可能向我们传达了这样一个信息：文章对地球上动物进化过程的描写很有可能是按照时间顺序的，因此本题所在的段落和下面的段落很可能存在时间上的延续关系，即本题所在的段落很可能会提到比75 million years ago更早的时间。通过对比选项可知选项［C］中的两个表示时间的短语375 million years和150 million

years和下一个段落中提到的时间状语具有了延续性，是正确答案。

此外，还可以采用词汇复现法解答本题。试题后面一句话About 75 million years ago the Age of Reptiles was over and most of the groups died out中的reptile在本题前的文章中从没有提到，在下文中又没有作为新信息，因而作为正确答案的选项中一定有这个词，只有［C］项中有"The amphibians gave rise to the reptiles for nearly 150 million years these were the principal forms of life on land,

in the sea, and in the sea ,and in the air"。所以正确答案只能是［C］。