翻译理论与实践典论文的写作与评析
翻译理论与实践典论文的写作与评析
翻译是跨文化交际的重要方式*是各国进行政治、经济、文化和科学技术等交流的重 要手段。在整个人类历史上，翻译活动对文化交流和社会发展起了巨大的推动和促进作 用。从某种意义上说，文明的保存、社会的发展，首先应归功于翻译.从古罗马帝国到现 代欧洲共同体，从基督教的传播到佛教的弘扬，离开翻译人员的努力都是难以想象的D
虽然翻译活动无论在中国或西方都已有一两千年的历史，翻译研究活动也一直伴随着 这一历史进程，但是由于各种主客观原因，翻译研究一直没有得到应有的重视。翻译以及 译者的社会地位一直不髙，翻译在一般人眼里只是一门技能，译者只是译匠而已。相对于 原文以及原文作者，译者只不过是“仆人”、“媒人”、“舌人”以及“不忠的美人”而已9
翻译不仅是一门技能，更是一门综合性很强的学科，因为它集语言学、文学、社会 学、教育学、心理学、人类学和信息学等学科特点于一身，在长期的社会实践中巳经拥有 了一套自己的抽象的理论、原则和具体方法，形成了自己独立的体系。尽管把翻译学作为 一门独立的学科而进行认真的研究还是近几十年的事情，但翻译学如今已成为一个公认的 • 92 ■英语专业毕此论文写作教程
学术名词，译学研究也越来越引起专家学者们的重视，并在国内、国外取得了令人瞩目的 进展。作为一门尚未成熟的学科，它还有许多基础研究工作等待着翻译爱好者和翻译研究 者认真去做^
在翻译领域可供研究探索的课题非常多。大体说来，英语专业学生可从以下几个论题 着手进行翻译方面的论文写作。
1.翻译的基本间題：翻译的定义和性质
关于“什么是翻译”存在许多回答。例如，英国著名翻译理论家J.C.Catford.曾经说 过：“翻译是一项对语言进行操作的工作，即用一种语言的文本来替代另一种语言的文本 的过程”（19G5: 20)。美国翻译理论家Eugene A Nida则认为：“翻译是在接受语中寻找 和原文信息尽可能接近的自然的对等话语，首先是意义上对等，其次才是风格上的对等” (1982； 12)。前苏联翻译理论家巴尔胡达罗夫认为：“翻译是把一种语言的言语产物在保 持内容方面也就是意义不变的情况下改变为另外一种语言的言语产物的过程。” (1985： 4) 我国翻译家张培基则认为：“翻译是运用一种语言把另一种语言所表达的思维内容准确而 完整地重新表达出来的语言活动。”
从上面的定义不难看出，离开语言，研究翻译是不可能的，但是翻译研究不仅仅是对 语言的研究，因为翻译不仅仅是语言的转换，它还涉及到语言学、哲学、美学、交际学、 文化、心理学等诸多因索。
对于翻译的性质，国内外翻译界也有不同的看法。大体上说，以语言学家为代表的翻 译理论家一般认为翻译是一种语言活动，它服从于语言学规律，人们称这一派观点为翻译 的科学学派；而文学家则认为翻译（应指文学翻译）是一种艺术的再创造过程，所以称之 为翻译的艺术学派。后来美国语言学家、符号学家Rorrmnjakobscm又把翻译活动从语言 符号扩大到整个符号体系，将翻译分为三类，即符际翻译、语际翻译和语内翻译。但这样 还是难以消除关于翻译本质的争论，英语专业本科学生通过对这一课题的探索，可以进一 步认识翻译，并为今后对翻译问题的深人研究莫定一定的理论基础a
2.翻译的原则与标准
任何翻译实践总要遵循一定的翻译标准或原则，衡童一篇译文的好坏同样也离不开一 定的翻译标准，因此翻译标准的确立对于指导翻译实践有着重要的意义。然而由于翻译活 动历史悠久，从事翻译的人具备不同的社会背景与语言背景，对翻译本质的认识与期待值 均不相同，衡量翻译的原则也各不相同，因面形成了多种翻译标准。概括起来，它们大体 可分为四类.
(1)以作者或读者两方中某一方为主要着眼点的翻译原则提出这类原则的包括所谓 的硬译（重“质”）派和意译（重“文”> 派。前者如西晋的笠法护，以及中世纪欧洲翻译 基督教文献的译者，他们一般唯原文形式是从，不加改动，甚至多用音译法。后者如三国 时期的支谦、康僧会，东晋的鸠摩罗什，以及文艺复兴时欧洲的文学翻译家，他们的译文 力求归化，文辞典雅，但有时不惜曲解原文。美国当代翻译理论家奈达早年提出的“动态 对等”原则也基本上是以读者为取向的。“直译”和“意译”作为实际翻译中具体使用的 两种方法，其实是可以并存的。但是如果把它们当中的任何一种奉为翻译的原则，都会造 成很多误解，带来种种弊端。
第七章专，华业论文的写作与评析• 93 •
.(2)同时考虑作者和读者的翻译原则。这一原则既考虑到作者又同时考虑到读者，比 较全面。唐代玄奘提出的“既须求真，又须喻俗”就表达了这个原则。18世纪末的英国 学者亚历山大•泰特勒（Alexander Fraser Tytler)在《论翻译的原则》一书中提出了著 名的“翻译三原则①译文应完全复写出原作的思想；②译文的风格和笔调应与原文的 性质相同；③译文应和原作同样流畅。严复在《天演论》（译例言）中提出了著名的“信、 达、雅”三字标准。鲁迅先生认为：“凡是翻译，必须兼顾两面，一当然力求其易解，一 则保存着原作的丰姿/’ 这类翻译原则或标准虽说正确，但过于理想化，执行起来困难较大。
(3)从美学角度提出的翻译原则。这类翻译原则主要为文学翻译家所提倡。如傅雷的 “神似”说，钱钟书的“化境”说和许渊冲的“三美说' 在这类翻译原则的指导下，会产 生非常精彩的译品，但描述不太具体，同时也不适合非文学作品的翻译.
(4)以社会符号学为取向的翻译原则。这类翻译原则强调翻译必须考虑各种语言符号 所传达的意义和功能.它要求译者在翻译时尽可能地把原文所承载的各种意义和功能全部 传递给译人语的读者，能这样做当然十全十美，但往往很难做到^
英语专业的本科生可运用当代翻译理论以及相关学科的研究成果，对前人提出的翻译 标准和原则迸行探讨，从而加深对翻译本质的认识。
3.翻译技巧和翻译方法
关于翻译技巧和方法的研究是应用翻译学的一个重要组成部分，是翻译研究中一个最 基本的课题。
翻译的基本方法是字面翻译（literal translation)和非字面翻译或自由翻译（non- literal translation or free translation) a 最严格的字而翻译是逐字翻译（word-for-word translation)，而语义型翻译（semantic transiation)和忠实于原文的翻译(faithful translation)则是字面翻译的变体，沟通型翻译（communicative translation)、习惯语翻 译(idiomatic translation)和归化翻译(adaptation translation)都可归人自由翻译类。
研究翻译方法与翻译技巧，就是对转换现象的语言学描写和功能分析，包括转换技巧 的条件、限制、规律、类别以及习惯成分.研究翻译技巧的论题，可以集中于一个方向， 如：典故的译法、习语的译法、电彩片名的译法和科技术语的译法等^ 一般而言，这类题 目更容易操作，学生只褥收集一定数量的专题翻译例证，然后通过分析比较，从中归纳出 几种处理的形式，其中最值得注意的是，例证必须切合所论述的观点，译文力求准确为 了增强论文的说服力，还可引用某些权威人士的评论和译文.
本类别研究属于实用研究，对于培养英语专业本科生的翻译能力有直接的意义，研究 内容和方法多为比较英、汉语的异同，并运用语言学以及相关学科的知识，探讨具体语境 中的翻译方法的运用。
4.翻译的客体研究
翻译客体研究的主要内容是对原文文本的意义的探寻。原文文本具有双重性质，一方 面是被决定了的性质，另一方面是幵放的性质。所谓被决定是指它有原意，作者的写作是 有意
图的，因而原文是一个图式框架，有一定的定向性。这种定向性即说明原文文本对译 者有一定的制约性。然而一部文本，特别是文学文本，它的语言符号是能指优势符号，具 • 94 • 英语专北毕北论文写作教程
有返回能性、情感性和伪指性。文学语言的能指和所指之间不存在强制性的对应关系，而 表现为象征性、形象性和隐喻性等特点，文学文本因而存在许多空白和未定性，形成一个 具有开放性和召唤性的结构，因此任何文学性的文本向着一切可能开放着。
对意义的追寻在同一种语言文化作品中就如此复杂，在翻译中必定更为复杂。由于不 同民族语言与文化的差异以及作者与译者的人生经历、情感以及对世界的体验存在着差 异，因而翻译中对意义的理解与表达成了一个永久性争论的话题。
英语专业本科生可以通过对译本的研究，探讨原文文本在何种程度上制约着译者的主 观能动性，从而可以更好地了解翻译活动的复杂性以及它的创造性.
除了文学文本以外，文本的类型还包括应用性文体（如信函、通知、启事、合同、协 议、说明书以及使用指南等）、科技文体（如科学报告、科学论文、专利文献和科普读物 等），以及一些专门用途的文本（如商贸合同、法律条文和广告）等，由于这些类型的文 本与文学文本所传达的信息内容的性质不相同，，所以它们的符号学特征和语言功能也不一 样。这些类型的文本符号追求的是统一以及确定性的意义，具有强烈的他律性殳
英语专业本科生可以就某一类型的文本符号特征和语言功能分析人手，探讨此类型的 文本在翻译时应遵从的原则和采取的具体方法学生还可以采用描述性研究方法，对某一 类型的文本翻译现状进行描述，找出问题所在，并运用理论知识分析其原因，找出更好的 翻译改进办法。这一问题的探索有助于学生提髙对不同文体翻译的能力。
5,翻译的主体研究
翻译的主体研究主要探讨的是译者的主体与主体性问题。由于受西方文论中“作者中 心论”和“文本中心论”的影响^传统的翻译研究对译者的主体与主体性问题十分不重 视，它往往侧重于译者主体的被动与消极和受制约的一而，而压制主体的主体性。近几年 受“读者中心论”的影响以及解构主义翻译观的影响，翻译研究者非常重视译者的主体与 主体性的探讨。
译者主体的构成要索主要有以下四个方面；①语言的感悟力和语言的创造力；②丰富 的想像力；③富于情感；④审美判断力和'艺术的敏感^译者的主体性主要是指译者对原文 本的理解和阐释的主观能动性》即再创造性。它主要体现为：①译者的心理关注与审美期 待；②译者的知识实在性；③理解阶段原文本意义的再创与重建；④翻译中的文本重构殳
在研究这个论题时，学生可以将中外某一个著名的翻译家作为研究对象，阐述他的翻 译思想，评析他的翻译作品，通过介绍他在翻译活动中所具备的良好素质以及表现出的主 观能动性，彰显他的翻译活动对社会文化发展所做的贡献，这种研究将有利于译者地位和 翻译地位的提髙&
6.翻译的环境研究
翻译的环境研究主要包括语言内部环境和语言外部环境研究。
(1)落后的内部控制。
①语言的力量。
人类创造了语言，但人又被自己所创造的语言所控制6因为人们给词语以一定的概 念，然后这一概念被人们普通接受。如果拒绝接受它，就会被大多数人所不容，看来人们 始终生活在语言的牢笼之中，受着它的制约。一旦两种文化中出现了词语概念意义的空缺 第七幸专題英语专业毕业论文的写作与评析• 95 •
和不对等，翻译的问题就会出现。
英语专业本科生可以>翻译的角度，比较英汉两种语言在句子结构、词语搭配和词义 等方
面的异同，从面进一¥探讨语言差异所带来的翻译问题以及解决与处理问题的办法. 英汉互译中词语概念意义的空缺和不对等现象，应如何通过调整、补偿、替换，甚至增加 解释等手段来达到传达原文本义的翻译目的&
②语境的制约^
语言意义的表达必须依靠语境，孤零零的一个词是没有意义的，没有上下文，人们很 难确定其意义。以往人们多注意词语与外部世界的对应性意义，而现在人们开始关注词的 用法，注意它是在什么样的环境下使用的，即语境问题。
由于一个词的准确意义必须在具体的语境中才能明确，因此无论是在翻译的理解还是 表达阶段，译者都箝要从一组义项或是一组近义词中做出最恰当的选择，而这一选择离不 开语境的制约，具体来讲，语境的制约功能可以帮助译者做出如下选择：根据词语的搭配 关系确定原文词义；根据具体的语言语境来选择译文用词；根据语言语境消除歧义；根据 语言语境来确定词语感情色彩的传达.
英语专业本科生可从语言语境的功能人手，探讨语言语境的这些功能是如何制约翻译 活动的。这种研究有利于提髙学生的翻译实践能力，从而为将来的翻译实践活动打下 基础。
(2)语言的外部控制。
翻译并不是译者的个人行为，而是一种社会实践活动，因此在从事翻译活动时，译者 不仅受到语言内部的制约，同时会受到来自语言的外部因素的控制.这种外部控制主要来 自两个方面。
①文化社会因素的操控。
许钧在《翻译论》中指出社会因素对翻译的选择、接受和传播起着直接的作用，主要 体现在：社会的发展呼唤翻译；在不同的社会发展阶段，有着对翻译的不同选择和需求； 社会的开放和封闭程度对翻译的影响；社会价值观对翻译的影响。
关于文化因素对翻译的影响，许钧指出主要表现在：一个国家所处的文化空间或一个 时代的文化环境对翻译的影响；文化立场对翻译的影响；文化心理对翻译的影响。
②意识形态的操控。
任何人都是社会的人，因此他不可能是一个自由的、理性的和完全自律的本体，面是 从小就受家庭熏陶，学校有目的和有方向的教育，工厂和单位的塑造，甚至蒈察和监狱的 训诫。按伊格尔顿的话来说，意识形态是“种种话语策略，对统治权力会感到难堪的现实 予以移置、重铸或欺骗性的解说，为统治权力的自我合法化不遗余力”（伊格尔顿1999: 86>。因此在翻译中，译者遇到与译语主流意识形态不符的原文，或删除，或改译。除此 以外译语文化的主流意识形态常常渗人或主导有关权力机构，采取政治行为，如以颁布政 策的形式，对翻译加以干涉。
英语专业本科生可以通过对某一个译本以及同一原文的多个译文的分析，来考察翻译 活动所受到的外部控制，从而更好地、更客观地对译文进行评析，从而加深对翻译活动的 认识。 • 96 • 英语专立英语专业毕业论文写作教程
7.翻译的效果研究
翻译的效果研究，从某种意义上讲就是翻译的批评研究g翻译批评是一种沟通翻译活 动与社会接受的中介性活动。它主要包括两个部分，即理论部分与实践部分6其中实践部 分就是以翻译理论及其相关学科的理论与方法对译文进行鉴赏、评价、评论以及比较等具 体批评活动。
翻译批评从外部可分为社会一政治批评、历史批评和道德批评；从文本的内容可以分 为审美批评、语言学批评及文化批评；从方法上看可以有与原文文本参照的对比性批评、 不同译文的比较批评、鉴赏式批评以及评论式批评《
翻译批评的社会一政治批评是翻译研究的宏观性关注，主要讨论翻译作品与社会进步 和发
展的关系及对它的影响。它将对翻译文本选择的政治取向、价值观以及其所反映的道 德观进行评论，对译者翻译的动机和翻译工作者的意图给予评价.
翻译批评的历史批评是对翻译活动的历史性研究，是以历史唯物主义的观点，对不同 历史时期的翻译观念和翻译作品的评论与评价。
审美批评是从文艺学和美学的角度，来评价一部译作在审美接受和译文表达上的美学 效果，它主要是针对文学作品从美学角度进行的批评活动。
语言学批评，是运用语言学的各种知识来评价译文，其中包括语义成分分析、语篇分 析和话语分析等.
文化批评是从文化的角度来评价翻译的文化价值取向等问题。
8.翻译史研究
翻译对语言与文化有着深远的影响，这就涉及到翻译的历史与文化研究。常用于这些 领域研究的理论有范式理论、多元系统理论等&翻译史研究中涉及的问题如下u①翻译 者。翻译者的背景，翻译者与出版商、编辑的关系，翻译者的动机及其翻译实践。②翻译 作品或翻译实践。一个有趣的研究领域是考察在特定历史时期及特定的文化体系中，哪些 文本被翻译，哪些文本受到排斥。③翻译动机.为什么在特定历史时期出现某些特定文本 的翻译，其原因包括通过翻译建立本国文学；受到两种文化之间的特定关系的影响，或者 是由于某个出版商的个人兴趣等。④翻译策略。由于受到翻译委托人、出版商、读者及译 者本人偏好的影响，不同时期翻译者在选择翻译策略时有很大的不同^对特定历史文化语 境下特定翻译文本的研究是翻译史上一个重要的课题.
9. 口译研究
a译研究涉及语言学、交际、认知、社会与文化等领域。根据不同的原则，口译有不 同的分类方法。根据a译模式，可分为同声传译与连续传译^根据口译发生的社会情境的 不同，可分为会议口译（通常是单向的同声传译，即一种语言译成另一种语言）；联络口 译，也叫做对话口译或交际口译（通常是双向的）以及法庭口译（常为双向）9
撰写研究英汉、汉英翻译的英语专业毕业论文，特别值得注意的是：在收集与举出例证时，要 特别仔细，既不可盲从，也要注意是否合适并能说明问题。应本着实事求是的精神，认真 仔细地去研读原文和译文，这样才有可能写出髙质量的英语专业毕业论文来。研究翻译和翻译现 象，能检验和总结多年来的英语专业知识学习。对于英语专业的本科毕业生来说，一般不 宜选择纯理论的议题，而应当选择实践性和应用性较强的翻译论题。
笫七幸专趕毕北论文的写作与评析• 97 *
【论文范文】 Cultural Presupposition and Misreading in Translation
Abstract； Cultural presupposition plays a very important role in cross-cultural communication. Cultural presuppositions are certain credendum and theories which exist in people's mind in form of latent supposition in certain society. All these relevant latent suppositions hypothesis, faith and conception that are culturally rooted and generally shared by persons，which is natural and basic and obvious to original language reader, will be a big obstacle to Target language reader and translator and will easily lead to misreading in translation.
This article mainly discusses typical misreading in translation from the angle of cultural presupposition* Nida* in his Meaning across Culture, divided culture presupposition into five catalogues； material world and creation, history and tradition, supernatural relationship，interpersonal relationship，rational behavior. Different culture aspects have different influences in translation * including the relationships between human and the society, human and nature, human and other creates of the world, interpersonal relationship, etc. Translators should be aware of different culture backgrounds such as wedding customs» politic selection, and geography features.
This paper analyzes the culture background and the reason that caused the misreading； finally tries to put forward some good suggestions to solve the misreading problems. Suggestions include margin or side note, paraphrase, complimentary of culture default, combining literary translation with free translatioiu
Key wordls； culture presupposition； obstacle； misreading in translation
摘要：文化预设在跨文化交际中举足轻重^文化预设，是指在社会中人所共识但以 潜在假设形式存在的信条和理论。它是沉积于原语及原语读者心中的文化因素，是指导原 语读者世界观、生活方式及行为方式的基本准则.这无疑是猶译实践中的一大障碍，极易 引起误译。 本文主要从文化预设的角度来探讨引起翻译误译的文化原因，奈达将文化预设分为物 质世界和生物、历史和命运、超自然生命、人际关系以及理性行为等五种类型。不同的文 化因素对翻译产生不同的影响，达些文化因素包括人与社会的关系、人与自然的关系、人 与其他生物的关系以及人与人之间的关系等^译者必须对目‘的语的风俗习惯、政治关系、 竞选以及地理特征等文化背景有足够的了解，对文化差异有足够的敏感意识。本文将从典 型的误译案例出发，以五种文化预设为框架》分析引起误译的文化背景及原因并提出相应 的对策。
关键词：文化预设，障碍，翻译误读
I . Introduction
Cultural presupposition plays a very important role in cross-cultural communication. Of the many possible factors that may induce misreading in translation, cultural
• 98 •
presupposition merits the special notice of translators because it may substantially and systematically affect their interpretation of facts and events in source texts without their knowing it.
Therefore, in order to reduce and avoid misreading in translation, it is quite necessary to do research on the reasons that cause misreading, especially cultural aspects underlying the context. What is cultural presupposition? What kind of influence does cultural presupposition has upon the translation? How does cultural presupposition affect translator‟s understanding? People often start reading from the part of his own cultural background, and have certain presuppositions in his mind, Tbese presuppositions reflect source language’s view of world? life style» values，behavior and so on.
This article mainly discusses typical misreading in translation from the angle of cultural presupposition. Nida, in his Meaning across Culture, divided culture presupposition into five catalogues； material world and creation，history and tradition, supernatural relationship and humane and other creates of the world, interpersonal relationship and rational behavior. Different culture aspects bave different influences in translation, including the relationship between human and tbe society, human and nature，human and other creates of the world，interpersonal relationship9 etc. Translators should be aware of different culture backgrounds such as wedding customs^ politic selection* and geography features.
Based on Nida，s translation theory, the intension of tbis paper is to try to put forward some good suggestions so as to reduce and avoid misreading in translation.
II. Cultural Presupposition
2. 1 Definition of culture presupposition
The first important anthropological definition of culture is presented by Sir Edward Tylor in Primiti-ue Culture (1871). He define culture as； u That complex whole which includes
knowledge, belief, art, morals, customs，and any otber capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. ” (Quote in Bock，1973 ： 13 - 14) Tylor5s definition has continually been the basis of most modem anthropological conceptions of culture.
Presupposition is raised by famous German philosopher and mathematician — Gottlob Frege. It often refers to the assumption before one's speech，acts as the premise or precondition of the situation» or tbe so-called hypothesis，supposition. For example, “Lucy knows that George is a crook. ’，This sentence presupposes “George is a crook. ” In case that sentence two does not exists, the sentence one will be a false one.
Cultural presupposition is certain credendum and theories that exist in people‟s mind in form of latent supposition in certain society. All these relevant latent supposition., hypothesis, failh and opinion, which are natural to source language reader, will be a big
obstacle to target language reader and translator and will easily lead to misreading in translation. Or we can put it clearer, easier to understand.
第七章专題英语专业毕业论文的写作与评析• 99
Misreading usually happens that，for a western joke or caricature, we know every word or every picture, but we cannot understand it，nor could we touch the sense of humor. Here are two examples.
Example 1 ： Adam returned home late one night, and Eve confronted him at the door. “You’re seeing another woman，aren’t you?”
“Don't be sillyV’ he replied，“You，re the only woman on earth. ”
Later，while half-asleep f Adam felt a tickle on his chest,
“What are you doing?” he asked Eve.
“Counting your ribs. ”
Analysis： The Bible recorded that God created the first man — Adam，then took a rib ou( of Adam and created the first woman一Eve. So that's why Eve counted Adam’s ribs in order to check if God has created another woman.
Adam‟s ribs are printed with special religious color in western culture, and have specific presupposition, which is unfamiliar to other culture. Without relevant knowledge of the Bible and effective presupposition» Chinese readers could not understand the humor of the joke and will feel it is not funny at all.
Example 2 ： Once in a European Union conference > a new comer introduced himseU as a Minister of Swiss navy. Others all burst into laughing, but the representative of Switzerland claimed： “Weil, why not? Italy has a Minister of Finance. ”
Analysis ： Whether the reader could touch the sense of humor in this joke depends upon if they have mutual knowledge： Switzerland does not have coastal line，nor does it have Minister of navyf Itajy is not a rich country, nor does it have Minister of Finance. Both writer and reader should have the mutual knowledge，which is undoabtediy presupposition, otherwise the joke will make nonsense.
%、2 Division of cultural presupposition
According to Nida f cultural presupposition could be divided into five catalogues.
(1) Material world and creation： the relationship between human and the world.
(2) History and tradition； the relationship between human and society,
(3) Supernatural relationship： the relationship between human and nature.
(4) Inlerpersonal relationship.
(5) Rational behavior： human himself.
Those presuppositions reflect source language reader's concept towards world, life style, hehavior and other aspects of people's life, as well as affect the procedure of translation. Different cultural presuppositions easily caused misreading substantially. This paper will analyze the causes of misreading from the structure of five cultural presuppositions.
HI. Culture Presupposition and Misreading in Translation
How do these five underlying cultural presuppositions affect translator‟s understanding? • 100 •
3.1 Material world and creation
Example 3 ： She could not risk Mrs Merriwether writing another letter to her mother. “You old buffalo!” She thought, her face crimson with suppressed fury.
[Wrong]你这头老牛！ /你真牛！
[Right]你这令人厌恶的老东西！
Analysis： Buffalo symbolizes working hard for a long time without any complaint in Chinese, and it is seemed as a friend of labor people. In addition, nowadays when “牛” is used as a adjective, it describes someone who is very outstanding and incomparable. Based on such culture background，Chinese students presuppose the word buffalo also have such positive meaning in English culture when they translate. However, buffalo is taken as ^frightening* make fun of others, disgusting person”. Saying someone is very “牛” in Chinese is a praise, while calling someone **old buffalo，，in. English is certainly a curse.
A famous linguist once said, the same object or phenomenon was printed in different colors by languages in different races' eyes. That is what we called “mal-position” or “displacement” of cultural images.
Take Dragon as an example. In Chinese culture, dragon is the preventative of King， which symbolizes majesty and holiness. Dragon can control the weather，bring drought or flood wantonly, and come and go secretly and mysteriously. And most phrases relevant to dragon have some air of majesty and holiness like “真龙天子、龙宫以及望子成龙” and so on. However, in western culture dragon is a crude evil, frightening which should be killed finally. Many descriptions about saint and heroes in the Bible talked about hero‟s fight against dragon and finally the story end with dragon's being killed. Renwulf is a good example. If Chinese presuppose that westerners also feel proud of being the descendant of dragon* they will make a big mistake.
We have other animals such as dog, bat, owlt hare, rat and some plants such as daffodil orchid，and chrysanthemum and so on. Both Chinese and western culture have the same animals and plants, but different culture print them with different or even opposite meaning. Bat is seen as symbol of happiness, healthiness and goodness in Chinese culture, for the sake of its pronunciation (same a& “fu”，means happiness). In contrast, bat is considered as ugly, evil and blood-breeding animal by westerners. “As hlind as a bat”，“crazy as a bat”，“has bats in the belfry”，etc. Bat bears a notorious reputation in western culture.
In addition，Chinese culture has some distinguished images about material world, such as yin, yang, wu xing, etc. Westerners have never met of that and cannot understand them.
3. 2 History and tradition
The culture of a country forms in the river of history, so does its cultural tradition, geographic feature and politic characteristics.
第七幸专慧英语专业毕业论文的写作与评析* 101 •
Example 4 ： The Big Apple consumes much energy each year.
[Wrong]大苹果 [Right]纽约城
Example 5： He himself，the mayor, never visited East End homes*
[Wrong〕东方或东边家庭 [Right]伦敦贫民区
Example 6； Mrs Smith was born Brown fifty - eight years ago.
[Wrong] 58年前，史密斯夫人出生在布朗家。
[Right]史密斯夫人58岁，她家姓布朗。
Example 7； But Smith shows unexpected strength- especially in the wet districts.
[Wrong]显示出惊人的力量；潮湿地区
[Right]出其不意地获得大量选票；非禁酒地区
Example 8 ：阿舒已二八
[Wrong] A-shu is eighteen,
[Right] A-shu is sixteen.
阿宣行志学
[Wrong] A-xuan do his best.
[Right〕 A-xuan is fifteen- Example 9；赤脚大仙
[Wrong] red-legged immortal (红腿的不朽之神）
[Right] bare foot immortal
Analysis； In example 4，Big Apple，which has special meaning when capitalized, refers to New York, the Capital of America. Other examples such as Pentagon, White House* those places are names of political center* thus are printed with politic color. Translator should have a good geographical knowledge of America, In example 5 the word “East” and “West” have special politic meaning in Britain，means poor district on the east and rich district on the west. Example 6 refers to wedding customs, girl shall follow her hushand's family name after marriage. Of example 7 the phrases “show unexpected strength，，and “wet districts” also specialize in selection language, quite different from their literal meaning. Of example 8 ‘‘二A/’does not mean two and eight, eighteen or twenty-eight, it means twice eight, that is sixteen‘ “行志学” does not mean “do his best to study”. It comes from “十五而有志于学”，so it also refers to age of fifteen* Of example 9 “赤” when it is used in color, “ 赤发，赤色，面红耳赤”，it means “red”，but when it is used with part of human body, e. g. “赤脚，赤脾” especially “赤脚大仙”，it means “hare”. “赤脚大仙，，is an unique culture image in ancient Chinese legendy a punchy immortal with barefoot.
Those misreading mentioned above in translations are about different cultural
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traditions and backgrounds. E-C translation requires good knowledge of western cultural background, such as geography, politics, wedding customs, politic selection, and so on. C„E translation covers Chinese culture information, such as “Shi Jing” ( The Book of Songs )，the legend of “Xi You Ji” (The journey to West). Both of them are characterized wilh national culture. If translator knows little about those traditional literary works and is not familiar with the special cultural background? it is very difficult for them to give a sound translation. In order to avoid any potential misreading or misinterpretation of the source text on the part of the target reader, it is desirable that translators make appropriate use of language resources to clarify any potentially misreading sense of the linguistic sign in the target context.
3. 3 Supernatural life (relationship between human and nature)
Example 10: John can be relied on* He eats no fish and plays the game,
[Wrong]他不吃鱼，还玩游戏。
[Right]他既忠诚，又守规矩，
Example 11: I helieve, because of my religious faith, that “I shall return to Father” in an afterlife that is beyond of description.
[Wrong]再生，重生，来生，来世（賦予灵魂新的肉体）
[Right]升天堂/下地狱
Analysis： These two examples come from religious belief. Example 10 is from Saint of Protestantism，who follows the principle of “eat no fish” in fast day, is considered as person with loyalty. And one has to obey the principles when playing games，so he is a self—declined person abide the law.
Example 11 in the Christian‟s belief is about life and death, one person‟s soul will go to Heaven or Hell after his physical death, according to his doing good or bad deeds. Afterlife means go to Heaven or Hell in Christian, But in Chinese Buddhism culture，one will get reborn, his soul will get away from his past ashes and come to lead the new life, which will benefit from his doing good or be punished from his doing bad last Life. As a consequences people will have second, third, fourth f fifth. * . life, the later life will get good repay or reciprocate from his doing good in the former life, otherwise he will be punished and lead a miserahle life in the later life. These kinds of misreading, which presupposes westerners also have second life or next life, will go against Christian's belief and make western readers confused. So Translators should be aware of different religious cultures.
3. 4 Interpersonal relationship
Exampkl2:蜈内，瞾姓，塁兄，盒妹，墼人，型作，莖道，笪见，莖舍。
Humber wife, humble name, humbles me，humble sister, humbie work，etc. Example 13：(被邀上台）本人才疏学浅，本人没有准备，随便讲几句，本人班门弄
第七章专題英语专业毕业论文的写作与评析 ■ 103 •
迕，请多指教。
I didn‟t prepare for the speech> just make some casual remarks.
I‟m here showing off before Lu Ban. Please kindly give me your advice.
Analysis： Modesty (or even self-abasement) is one of Chinese traditional virtue. Principles of modesty are Handed down generation after generation. The purpose of obeying these principles is to give others a good impression and show respect to others through lowing or debasing oneself. Thus Chinese presuppose that westerners also consider it as a virtue in communication. Unexpectedly, westerners believe that，good interpersonal relationship shall be established upon equality of both sides r and showing respect is not established at the expense of debasing oneself. Beside honorific words and respected words, they emphasize self - confidence, and will never debase themselves. Example 13，English readers will feel incredible that it is really unacceptable to let an unqualified lecturer give stupid speech.
3. 5 Rational behavior
Example 14；(送客出门)慢走.
[Wrong] Walk slowly,
[Right] Take care.
Analysis： This example is about concept towards time. Whatever you do, in Chinese culture, people shall take his time and do it slowly, it is a way to show politeness to ask the guest to be
careful, so tbe function of this sentence is the same as “take care”，yet impresses listener with different connotative meanings. Chinese usually asks his friends to walk slowly, eat slowly, play slowly, etc. However in western culture，people have another concept of time. They advocate conservation of time, and have strict timetable for their plan. Punctuation, finishing a task in limit time * is regarded as a must, a virtue. They do not like an incidental visit or a sudden change without being informed ahead of time (at least one week). Asking guests to walk slowly will be misunderstood as to do things more slowly or even do not want him to do the thingf which is not a very good manner for westerners.
“慢走，慢吃，慢玩” could be translated into “mind your step”，“enjoy your meal”， “have a good time，，.
Example 15： She was a striking looking, a little short and thick for symmetry^ but witb a beautiful olive complexion, large dark Italian eyes, and a wealth of deep black hair,
A.安娜貌颇美丽，肤色雪白，柔腻如凝脂，双目点漆，似意大利人斜波流媚，轻 盈动人，而髻发压额，发色深黑，状尤美观，体略短削，微嫌不足。(Cbeng XIaoqing)
安娜身短而壮，面如橄榄，眼黑如意大利人，发黑如漆，面色如霞.（Zbang
Deqkun)
Comparing A with B, we can find the typical southern European beauty has been totally changed. The lady in A is of typical Chinese beauty, with slim body and snow-
104 • 英语专北毕北论文写作教程
white skin，while in B she becomes a crumble and vulgar one. Why? It depends on the aesthetics concept held by translator. Example A, which is obviously influenced by Chinese traditional aesthetic concept, impresses readers with an image of a pretty Chinese girl though at the expense of its original meaning. Example B，the translation rernains its original meaning* but describes a not so pretty girl. Those examples show different attitudes towards value and beauty that deeply rooted in translator’s mind and affect their translations,
IV- Suggestions 4.1 margin or side note
Example 16：五行：Wuxing， ( five elements ), a terminology first used by philosophers of the yinyang school to characterize the universe. They are water, fire, wood, metal and earth. Each is supposed to prevail over another，only to be prevailed over.
Example 17 ：天遂人愿：Heaven grants man's wish 天无绝人之路：Heaven never seals off all the exits 谋事在人，成事在天：Man proposes, Heaven disposes
In Chinese culture，“tian” is the sovereignty of the universe that possesses the feature of pantheism.
4. 2 Paraphrases or generalization Example 18：民以食为天。
[Wrong] Hunger breeds discontentment*
[Right] Food is of supreme importance to people.
Example 19：夫对妻来说是天字出了头D
[Wrong] To wives，husbands are superior to Heavens.
[Right] Husband Ls always superior to his wife.
GenerallzaHon： Abstract the same word from several similar expressions，and add appropriate numhers so as to make it briefly and concise.
Example 20：我妈妈是个古板人，讲究的是三从四德。（周立波《山乡巨变》）
My mother is rigidly conservative. She's very particular about the Three Obediences and the Four Virtues.
Example 21：全会建议全国人民代表大会修改宪法第四十五条，取消其中关于“四 大”即大鸣、大放、大字报、大辩论的规定。（《邓小平文选》第二卷）
The session has also decided to propose to the National People’s Congress the deletion of the provision in Article 45 of the Constitution concerning the Si Da，that is, speaking out freely, airing one’s view fully, writing big - character posters and holding great debates.
4. 3 Complimentary of culture default
Culture Default； the omission of shared culture knowledge in communication. Culture default is obvious to original language writer and reader, but blank new and easily
第七幸专題毕I论文的写作与评析• 105
confused to target language reader. And the complimentary of culture default is quite necessary in cross-cultural translation.
Example 22： I suspected she might be right and I wrong? but I would not ponder the matter deeply； Like Felix, I put it off a more convenient season. (Bronte： Jane Eyre，Ch. 6)
A.我想，也许她是对的，我错了。可是我不愿意深人思考这个问题，只好把它留到 以后有机会时，我会仔细想想的。
B.我疑心也许是她对，是我错了。可是我又不愿意深人地思考这个问题；像费力克 斯一样，我把它留到以后有空的时候再去思考。
C.我怀疑她是对的，而我错了，但我不想把这个问题深究下去，也像费力克斯一 样，把它暂且搁下，将来再说。（脚注——费力克斯：《圣经》中一名遇事拖延的法官d
Translation C is obviously much better than A and B, including all the information and the culture image with the side note, give readers a complete image of Felix and fully understanding of the meaning.
“Felix” is only one example of figure of speech—Antonomasia，or “jie dai” in Chinese. Some names or special words that occur in antonomasia are well known in source language culture* but blind to target reader. Translators shall pay special attention to the complimentary work.
Example 23：中国还有一句成语，三个臭皮匠，合成一个诸葛亮。单独的一个诸葛亮 总是不完全的，总是有缺陷的。(《毛泽东选集》第五卷）
Still another Chinese proverb says three cobblers with their wits combines equal Zhuge Liang the mastermind. Zhuge Liang, by himself can never he perfect, he has his limitations.
Example 24：这对年轻夫妇很不相配，一个是西施，一个是张飞，
This young couple is not well matched； one is a Xi Shi — a famous Chinese beauty， while the other is a Zhang Fei—a well - known til - tempered brute.
Example 25 ： He is a modern Samson.他是现代参孙式的大力士。（Samson:参孙， 《圣经》中人物，以身强力大著称。>
Example 26 ： We have enrolled every local Cicero.
我们把各地西塞罗式的雄辩家都招来了 (Cicero：西塞罗，古罗马雄辩家、政治家和 哲学家。）
4. 4 Delete the self-abasement element and add some polite manner to show respect
There are many other ways to show politeness in communication.
Cl) Past tense； I thought you were needing me，Mr Singer.
(2) Passive voice： Every piece of luggage has to be examined through.
(3) Modal verb： May I come in，please?/Would you mind my smoking?
令，贤，尊，贵，高，芳 could he replaced with ^respectful „”，“honorahle „”， “It is my great honor to ”
Delete the humble and self-abasement element (鄙，拙，贱，愚，舍，家等），and
• 106 • 英语专北毕ik论文写作教程
keep the respectful expressions as long as the delivery is fluent and the communication goes on without any misunderstanding.
4> 5 Combining literal translation with free translation，combining domestication with foreignization
E-C translation： There are many examples in Chinese Translators Journal. Translators shall try their best to do two things： deliver the meaning and hring in new culture images.
It is just the connotation of “Dynamic equivalence” recently raised by the American translation theorist Nida. The word “ dynamic ” indicates what is involved in the equivalence between two translations. On the one hand, the source language text versus the original receptor； on the other hand，the translated work versus the target receptor. With receptors being different，the same information is expressed in two different languages* but the effects produced are to be basically the same. This is exactly the chief principle of equivalent-effect translation.
C-E translation； Translate the meaning completely, and interprets with fully Chinese cultural meaning even though it is complicated. The purpose of translation is to deliver the character, the detailed feature of Chinese culture without any loss of cultural images and distinguish culture characteristics*
ln 1995，Lorence Venuti, the American translation theorist, raised two methods of translation in his The translator's Invisibility ： foreignizing method and domesticating method. Generally speaking, foreignizing method requires translator to get access to the writer, and adapt writer's way of speenh, while dornesticatmg method olines to the target language reader.
Example 27:至于才子佳人等书„„（《红楼梦》）
A. As for books of the beauty - and - talented type,, , (Yang)
B. And the “boudoir romance”. . . ( Hawkes)
Yang’s translation belongs to domesticating method, which has kept the advantages of sentence structure, as well as the characteristics of Chinese national culture； while Hawkes^ translation is more popular with westerner.
However» translator can combine literal translation with free translation, and give appropriate {oreignizatLon hased upon domestication. The adaptation of translation skills should be flexible according to the individual contexts, especially for some culture-specific items.
Example 28：吃糠
[Foreignizing] to have chaff (bran, husks)
[Domesticating] to have dishwater
Example 29：饿了吃糠甜如蜜
[F] In hunger one can taste honey in chaff.
第七章专越英语专业毕业论文的写作与评析* 107
[D] Hanger is the best sauce.
Example 30；举疾
[F] Take up the chopsticks to eat.
[D] Begin to eat with a knife and fork.
With the development of global economy and information，translators should entrust in reader's ability to understand the diversity of different culture and get access to the original meaning by readers themselves.
V. Conclusion
Nida (1998 ： 308) pointed out； For truly successful translating, biculturalism is even more important than bilingualism, since words only have meanings in. terms of the cultures in which they function.
Translators shall not presuppose other culture from our own cultural background, because translation is not the transference from one language to another, but the delivery from one culture to another culture. Certain presupposed information that is considered as natural f unnecessary to be reclaimed presupposition，has to be revealed or even stressed in other culture. So, when doing cross cultural study, the translator has to possess sensitivity of cultural and language differences. Translators have to pay special attention to cultural presupposition and he constantly alert of the cultural information. It is quite essential to have good knowledge of btcultural backgroundsT customs, politic events, geographic knowledge, etc. and make full use of translation skills. Bibliography ：
[1] Nida. Meaning Across Cultures [M]. NewYork： Ordi’s Press, 1981.
[2]卡坦.文化翻译：笔译、口译及中介人门[M],上海：上海外语教育出版 社，2004_
[3]包惠南.文化语境与语言翻译[M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，2001,
[4]张柏然f许钧.面向21世纪的译学研究[M].北京：商务印书馆，2002.
[5]杨自俭.英汉语比较与翻译[M],上海：上海外语教育出版社，2004.
[5]刘重德.英汉语比较与翻译[M].青岛：青岛出版社，1998,
[7]赵桂华.翻译理论与技巧[M].哈尔滨：哈尔滨工业大学出版社，2003.
[8]周志培.汉英对比与翻译中的转换[M].上海:华东理工大学出版社，2003.
[9]方梦之.译学词典[Z].上海：上海外语教育出版社，2004.
[10]王武兴.英汉语言对比与翻译[M].北京：北京大学出版社，2003.
[11]孙迎春.译学词典与译学理论文集[C],济南：山东大学出版社，2003,
[12]贾文波.应用翻译功能论[M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，2004.
[13]谢天振•译介学[M].上海：上海外语教育出版社，1999.
[10陈忠诚.词语翻译丛谈[M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，1933.
[15]陈忠诚，吴幼娟.词语翻译丛谈续编[M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公
• 108 • 司，2000.
[16]姜望琪，语用学：理论及应用[M].北京：北京大学出版社，2000.
[17]束定芳，中国语用学研究论文精选[C].上海：上海外语教育出版社，2001.
[18]周茜，翻译中的文化预设及翻译对策[J].重庆交通学院学报（社科版），2004, 4 (3).
[19]侯晚霞.试论英汉误译的文化成因[J].思茅师范髙等专科学校学报，2003，19
(”•
[20]张丽兵.民族思维习惯与英汉翻译[J].辽宁师专学报（社科版），2002 (3),
【论文评析】
论文标题基本包括了该论文的关键词，让读者看到题目时能大致预测论文的主要内容 是阐释文化预设与翻译误读的关系》即翻译过程中由于目的语种存在的文化预设现象对译 者的影响，造成译者对原语的误读。稍显不足的是标题中未能彰显具体的翻译类型。如到 底是英译汉，还是汉译英，或是其他语种的翻译。从论文主体来看，写作者主要是针对英译 汉过程中，由于汉语文化及思维定式的影响即文化预设，译者在对原语文本的理解过程中出 现偏差，从而导致误译。鉴于此，建议题目改为：Cultural Presupposition and Misreading in the Process of English—Chinese Translation,
从论文内容上看，该文共五个部分，①Imroductid主要是提出研究问题，介绍写 作本文的
目的。②Culunral presupposhioru这一部分主要阐释了文化预设的概念，其中分 别引用对culture (文化）和presupposition (预设）的较为权威的定义，在此基础上提出 cultural presupposition (文化预设）的定义，井举例说明由于文化预设的干扰造成的翻译 误读现象的存在。除此之外，写作者根据著名翻译理论家尤金•奈达的分类方法，将文化 预设分为五类：关于物质世界或造物方面的；历史与传统方面；超自然现象，或人与自然 的关系；人际关系|人类自身的理性行为a③Cultural presupposition and misreading in translation.这部分主要从上述文化预设的五个方面分别探讨这种现象对英汉或汉英翻译 的具体影响，基本上是通过翻译实例分析来进行说明-④Suggestions。针对第三部分提 出的由于文化预设导致翻译误读的问题，这部分提出一些可能的解决办法。如：译文加旁 注；转述或概括；对文化缺省补充；删掉汉语中的谦辞；直译与意译相结合；归还与异化 相结合，⑤Conclusion。该论文基本符合论文结构的规范，绪论、本论、结论齐全，且内 容上能围绕中心论点来展开。论证过程中引用权威定义，借鉴名家理论作为理论支撑，并 运用大量典型实例分析阐明自己的观点，这一点的确难能可贵。只是在举例时，英译汉与 汉译英的译例没有分开处理，混杂在一起，尤其是在提出解决文化预设误读问题的相应办 法时，由于没有将英汉、汉英翻译区分开，所提出的方法并不带有普遍性，这样就造成该 部分在条理上不够分明。正文中的论证相对来说不够深人。
论文体例上存在一些不规范的现象。如论文中援引某些专家学者的著作或相关内容 时，作者在后面并没有注明信息来源。所列出的参考文献书写上不够规范。在论文中还存 在著一些单词拼写错误及语法、句法方面的错误。
论文结构包括论文标题、中英文摘要、正文部分、参考文献，学位论文的基本要素都
第七章专超英语专业毕业论文的写作与评析• 109
具备。
总的来说，这篇论文虽然也存在一些问题，但对于一名英语专业的本科生来说，应该 是一篇写得比较成功的英语专业毕业论文。
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