英文 词汇 论文

An essay on English Lexicology

Despite what many might think, English Lexicology is well known across hundreds of nations all over the world. English Lexicology has been around for several

centuries and has a very important meaning in the lives of many. It would be safe to assume that English Lexicology is going to be around for a long time and have an enormous impact on the lives of many people. test for introduction.

Social & Cultural Factors

English Lexicology has a large role in American Culture. Many people can often be seen taking part in activities associated with English Lexicology. This is partly because people of most ages can be involved and families are brought together by this. Generally a person who displays their dislike for English Lexicology may be considered an outcast.

Economic Factors

It is not common practice to associate economics with English Lexicology.

Generally, English Lexicology would be thought to have no effect on our economic situation, but there are in fact some effects. The sales industry associated with English Lexicology is actually a 2.3 billion dollar a year industry and growing each year. The industry employs nearly 150,000 people in the United States alone. It would be safe to say that English Lexicology play an important role in American economics and shouldn't be taken for granted.

Environmental Factors

After a three month long research project, I've been able to conclude that English Lexicology doesn't negatively effect the environment at all. A English Lexicology did not seem to result in waste products and couldn't be found in forests, jungles, rivers, lakes, oceans, etc... In fact, English Lexicology produced some positive effects on our sweet little nature.

Political Factors

Oh does English Lexicology ever influence politics. Last year 5 candidates running for some sort of position used English Lexicology as the primary topic of their campaign. A person might think English Lexicology would be a bad topic to lead a campaign with, but in fact with the social and environmental impact is has, this topic was able to gain a great number of followers. These 5 candidates went 4 for 5 on winning their positions.

Conclusion

English Lexicology seem to be a much more important idea that most give credit for. Next time you see or think of English Lexicology, think about what you just read and realize what is really going on. It is likely you under valued English Lexicology before, but will now start to give the credited needed and deserved.

形义联想法，找出单词之间形状和意义的共同特点，利用他们的共同特点展开记忆。比如我们对ball ，ballet ，balloon ，ballot ，bullet 等几个词就可以做这样的联想记忆，即他们都和球有着意义是上的联系。balloon 是体积较大的气球，ballot 是用来投票的纸球，bullet 是体积较小的金属球。再比如：brace(支柱，支架) ，bracket(托架，括

号)?brake(闸，刹车) ，branch(分叉，树枝)? 等几个词当中都包含了br ，而它像张开两手向前作“抱”的姿势。这几个单词的汉语意思当中也都包含一个，抱或托的形象。

1，声音记忆法：看发音，有些很搞笑，如elocution 演说术，可以看成爱唠嗑的。acme 最高点，我是这样想的：爱过你——极大的痛苦，所以是最高的一类感情，最高的。dogmatism 教条主义，就是狗（够）他妈的（烦）。有点粗鲁，但很好记。

2，记忆一类词，有好多同义词，背书时记得总结，归为类，或上网查，输入：GRE 同义词 3，记形近词，把形相近的词整理一下

4，音相近，整理方式同上。

5，遵循记忆规律，早上起床两小时记忆力最佳，晚上睡觉前半小时记忆力最佳，每个单词看5秒，连续看七个，然后用30秒复习，来回次数要多，这样才加深记忆，每页背五分钟，背完一页后用1分钟复习前一页，30分钟背6页，然后用10分钟复习，再依照之前的方式继续背。被两个list ，晚上睡觉前复习一下，第二天在复习前一天背过的，以后再复习就隔两天，以此类推，加深记忆。（你可以买 ——杨鹏《十七天搞定GRE 单词》坚持下来，效果绝佳）

6，背书时要多做题，加深记忆，也可以多看一些书，你可以去USNEWS 网上看新闻，大部分都是GRE 单词。

7，有时间看英文电影

以上就是我背词时的方法，希望对你有用，背词虽然辛苦，但如果你征服了GRE ，你会有一种前所未有的满足感。还有一句话就是我的座右铭：心比天高，脚踏实地，坚持不懈，终将胜利

An essay on English Lexicology

general remarks总论 the three major processes :1、 affixation or derivation(附加或起源) (prefixation suffixation) 2、 conversion 3 、composition or compounding

Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems. Prefixes do not generally change the word-class of the stem but only modify its meaning. However, present-day English finds an increasing number of class-changing prefixes, e.g. asleep a. (a- + v), encourage v. (en- + n), unearth v. (un- + n), de-oil v. (de- + n), postwar a. (post- + n), intercollege a. (inter- + n) and others. These make up only an insignificant number in the huge contemporary vocabulary.

The majority of prefixes are characterized by their non-class-changing nature. Their chief function is to change meanings of the stems. Accordingly, we shall classify prefixes on a semantic basis into eight groups.

前缀法是在词干上加前缀构成新词的方法。前缀一般不改变词干的词性，只改变词义。然而，当代英语中发现有不少前缀可改变词性，例如a + sleep(v →adj.)，en + courage(n.→v.)，un + earth (n．→v．) ， de + oil (n.→v.)，post + war (n.→adj.)，inter + college(n.→adj.)等等。不过，这些在当代词汇中仅占无关紧要的比例。

根据前缀不改变词性只改变词义的特征，我们按语义将前缀分为9大类。

in some reference books,prefixs and suffixes are classified according to their source,but this does not seem to help from practical point of view.It seems more helping to classify the most important productive prefixs by their meaning into the follow ten categories:

Word-formation (I)

(The Three Major Processes of Word-formation)

1. General Remarks

Various ways of forming words can be classified on the basis of frequency of usage,

into major or minor processes. The major processes are three, namely,

compounding, derivation and conversion.

The minor processes are eight, namely, acronymy, blending, clipping, words from

proper names, back-formation, reduplication, neo-classical formation and miscellaneous. A. Percentage of new words coined by the different word-formation processes after

World War II

The percentage of firmly established new words coined by the above processes since World War II is shown in the following table:

1. The three major processes of word-formation: [l1]

(a)

(b)

Suffixation: hawkish, modernize;

(c) Conversion (about 10.5%):

bottle (verb), buy (noun).

Note that words formed by these processes account for 55% of the new vocabulary.

2. The eight minor processes of word-formation: [l2]

(a)

(b)

(c) (d)

(e) Back formation

(f)

(g)

(h) Others (about 3%): pizzazz, gazump.

Words formed by these minor processes account for 26.5% of the new vocabulary. The remaining 18.5% is from borrowing, e.g. discotheque, ombudsman and many others. B. Some basic concepts of word-formation Before we deal with word-formation proper, we will first explain some of the terminology to be used in the study of word-formation.

1. Word-formation rules: The rules of word-formation define the scope and methods whereby speakers of a language may create new words; for instance, the –able word-formation rules[l3] says, "-able is to be added to verbs to form an adjective meaning 'fit to be', or to nouns to form an adjective with the sense showing the quality of." And one of the noun compound formation is noun plus noun.

However, any rule of word-formation is of limited productivity in the sense that not all the words which result from the application of the rule are acceptable. Thus readable, fashionable are acceptable, but writable, deskable are not acceptable.

2. Root, stem, base: [l4]The three are terms used in linguistics to designate that part of a word that remains when all affixes have been removed.

A root( 词根)[l5] is a form that is not further analysable, either in terms of

derivational or inflectional morphology. It is that part of a word-form that remains

when all the inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed.

Thus in the word undesirables, the root is desire, to which first the suffix –able, then the prefix un- and finally the inflectional suffix –s have been added. In a compound word like greenhouse, there are two roots, green and house.

A stem（词干）[l6] is of concern only when dealing with inflectional morphology. It is the part of word form which remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed. Thus in the word undesirables, the stem is undesirable; but in the word desired, the stem is desire; in the word greenhouses the stem is greenhouse, even though the stem consists of two roots.

A base（词基）[l7] is any form to which affixes of any kind can be added; it may also be defined as "a form to which a rule of word-formation is applied." Therefore, this means that any root or stem can be termed a base. But a base differs from both a root or a stem, because they have their own special features as we have discussed

before. 2. Compounding （composition ）

A. Definition: Compounding or composition is a word-formation process consisting

of joining two or more bases to form a new unit, a compound word.

It

(b)

(c) open: air force, air raid.

The general tendency nowadays is for compounds to be written "solid" as soon as

they have gained permanent status; otherwise they are written open.

B. Classification of Compounds

Compounds are here classified according to parts of speech of the compounds, i.e. as noun compounds, adjective compounds and verb compounds, which are then subdivided by the syntactic relation of the compounding elements (this relation is

indicated by syntactic paraphrase).

1. Noun compounds: This is the commonest type, and new specimens are constantly being formed. Noun compounds are subclassified according to the

syntactic relation of the compounding elements:

(a) Subject and verb: The verb may take the form of the base or that of the base plus –ing. Examples are headache "the head aches", heartbeat "the heart beats";

revolving door "the door revolves".

(b) Verb and object: The verb may take the form of the base or that of the base+-ing. For example: birthcontrol "to control birth"; housekeeping "to keep house"; and dressmaking "to make dresses". The type housekeeping and dressmaking is very

productive.

(c) Verb and adverbial: Verbal noun in –ing +adverbial (consisting of a prepositional phrase) e.g. swimming pool "to swim in the pool or a pool for swimming"; typing

paper "to type on paper". It is a very productive type.

(d) Subject and object: steamboat "steam powers the boat"; honeybee "the bee

produces honey."

(e) Restrictive relation: the first element restricts the meaning of the second: raindrop "a drop of rain"; evening school "a school in the evening"; tablecloth "a cloth for table"; breakfast time "time for breakfast". The types of words like

tablecloth and breakfast time expressing purpose is very productive.

(f) Appositive relation: the first element is in apposition to the second one: e.g. a

peasant girl "the girl is a peasant"; a pine tree "the tree is a pine".

When the first element of a noun compound is

itself a compound, such a compound is called a string compound. e.g. test-tube baby "one conceived by artificial insemination, or developed elsewhere than in a

mother's body."

Compound nouns can also be formed from phrasal verbs. This type is very common in contemporary English. Examples are: sit-in, dropout, phone-in,

breakdown, setback and take-off.

2. Adjective compounds: Adjective compounds are also subclassified according to

the syntactic relation of the compounding elements:

(a) Subject and verb: The verb is in the form of past participle. Examples are thunder-struck (houses) "thunder struck the houses"; suntanned (skin) "sun

tanned the skin". This type is highly productive.

(b) Verb and object: the verb is in the form of present participle, e.g. fault-finding "to find fault"; peaceloving "to love peace". e.g. taxfree "free from tax"; seasick "sick

due to sailing on the sea"; fireproof "proof against fire".

The noun denoting the thing with which the adjective is compared

(as+adjective+as+noun, adjective like noun); e.g. ocean green "as green as ocean";

crystal-clear "as clear as a crystal"; shoulder-high "as high as shoulders".

(e) Coordinating relationship: The two adjectives are in a coordinating relationship, e.g. bittersweet "sweet but bitter"; Sino-U.S. relations "relation between China and

the U.S." 3. Verb compounds: Verb compounds fall into two main groups according to their method of formation: (a) Those formed by back-formation: Back-formation is a "reversal" to babysit (from

babysitting and babysitter); to windowshop (from window-shopping).

(b) Those formed by conversion. In this case, the verb compounds are converted

from noun compounds; e.g.

to nickname to honeymoon to outline

to machine-gun to snowball, etc.

These verb compounds are very often used in colloquial speech.

What might be more useful for a non-native speaker to do is to become familiar with some of the productive types as indicated in this chapter, and when examples of a certain type are found in context, to associate them with other examples of the

same type, so that his reading vocabulary will be enlarged.

Compounds are very often used because of their brevity and vividness. e.g. "up-to-the-minute information" is more vivid than "the latest information."

3. Derivation A. Definition: Derivation or affixation is a process of forming new words by the addition of a word element, such as a prefix, suffix or combining form, to an already existing word.

A combining form is a bound morpheme, which was originally a full word in Latin or

Greek.

e.g. auto (Gk autos self); hydro (Gk hydor water); tele (Gk tele far off).

But they now occurs only in derivatives. Derivation is subdivided into prefixation and suffixation. B. Prefixation

Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding a prefix or combining form to

the base. Prefixes modify the lexical meaning of the base, but do not generally change the word-class of the base. e.g. fair---unfair.

However, in current English, prefixes do convert words to a different word-class in

comparison with their original bases.

e.g. be- adj.----v. becalm, belittle

de- n.-----v. deform, debug

en- n.-----v. enslave, endanger

un- n.-----v. unleash, unearth

anti- n.-----adj. anti-war, anti-craft

inter- n.-----adj. inter-state, inter-laboratory

post- n.-----adj. postwar, postliberation

pre- n.-----adj. prewar,preplant

Classification of prefixes: They can be classified into the following eight categories

by their meaning:

1) "negative" prefixes (un-, non-, in-, dis-, a-);

2) "reversative or privative"("非" "缺") prefixes (un-, de-, dis-);

3) "pejorative" prefixes (贬损) (mis-, mal-);

4) Prefixes of size or degree (arch-, super-, out-, sub-, over-, under-, hyper-, ultra-,

mini-)

5) Prefixes of attitude (co-, counter-, anti-, pro-)

6) "locative" prefixes (super-, sub-, inter-, trans-)

7) Prefixes of time and order (fore-, pre-, post-, ex- re-)

8) "number" prefixes (uni-/mono-, bi-/di-, multi-/poly-)

There is also a miscellaneous category (auto-, neo-, pan-, proto-, semi-, vice-). Anti-, de-, mini-, non-, re-, super-, and un- are some of the most productive prefixes

today , which should be closely observed. B. Suffixation Suffixation is the formation of a new word by adding a suffix or a combining form to the base, and usually changing the word-class of the base. e.g. boy---boyish. But there are exceptions: e.g. boy---boyhood.

Classification of suffixes: Since suffixes usually change the word from one part of speech to another, it is convenient to classify them not only according to the

word-class of the word they form (as noun-forming suffixes, adjective-forming suffixes, etc.), but also according to the kind of base to which they are typically added. For example, a de-verbal suffix like –able or –er is one that typically added to a verb; -ed in pointed and simpleminded; -al in cultural, -ic in atomic and -ous in

ambitious. They are either de-verbal or de-nominal.

(d) Adverb(-forming) suffixes: e.g. -ly in happily,

-ward(s) in backward(s), and –wise in clockwise.

4. Conversion A. Introductory remarks: 1. Conversion and suffixation: Conversion is a word-formation process whereby a word of certain word-class is shifted into a word of another word-class without the addition of an affix. e.g. the verb attack (as in "The enemy attacked us at night.") corresponds to the noun attack (as in "The enemy launched an attack on us at

night.")

verb de-verbal noun

SUFFIXA TION: invade------invasion

CONVERSION: attack-------attack Other terms for conversion are "functional shift" and "derivation by zero suffix."

2. Conversion as a result of the almost entire loss of inflection (屈折变化) in modern English: The vocabulary of contemporary English is exceedingly rich in conversion pairs. As shown at the beginning of this chapter, the percentage of converted words

in the vocabulary of

Contemporary English is about 10.5%. As a word-formation process, conversion is extremely productive. This is so mainly because English had lost most of its inflectional endings by the end of Middle English period, which facilitated the use of words interchangeably as verbs or nouns, verbs or adjectives and vice versa. Indeed, the free interchange of a word from one word-class to another is a significant feature of Modern English. Sometimes a word may undergo multiple conversion, which enables it to function as a member of several word.

Notice how the word-class of round varies in accordance with its use in the

following sentences:

The second round was exciting. (n.)

Any round plate will do. (adj.)

Some drivers round corners too rapidly. (v.)

The sound goes round and round. (ad.) He lives round the corner.

The above examples tell us a very important fact: because word order is more fixed in Modern English than ever before, functional shifts within sentence structures are

possible without causing

any confusion in intelligibility.

B. Types of conversion:

There are various types of conversion but conversions from noun to verb and from

verb to noun are the most productive.

1. Noun----verb conversion: Today the large number of words formed by conversion

is constituted by verbs from nouns. This noun to verb conversion may be subdivided into the following groups, based on A Grammar of Contemporary

English by R. Quirk et al.

(a) "to put in/on N": The noun are usually locative nouns denoting a place, a container or a specified location; e.g. can v. as in "The workers canned apples."

Other examples: bottle, floor, cage, corner and pocket.

(b) "to give N, to provide N": e.g. shelter as in "They shelter the orphans." Other

examples: coat, wax, sugar, label, plaster and grease.

(c) "to deprive of N; or to remove the object denoted by the noun from something". e.g. weed as in "Bill weeded the garden." Other examples: core, dust, skin, gut and

peel.

(d) "To…with N": More precisely, the meaning of the verb is "to use the referent of the noun as an instrument for whatever activity particularly associated with it"; e.g. brake, as in "John braked the car."; finger as in "She fingered the soft silk." Other

examples: screw, glue, elbow, knife, x-rays and head.

(e) "to be/act as N with respect to…":

1) Verbs from human nouns: e.g. mother as in "She mothered the orphan." Other

example: nurse, boss, pilot, referee and usher.

2) Verbs from animal nouns: e.g. parrot as in

"Tom parroted what the boss had said." monkey (to fool about); dog (to follow

closely behind); wolf (to eat greedily).

3) Verbs from inanimate nouns: e.g. shadow as in "The police shadowed the suspected spy." (The police followed the suspected spy closely like a shadow.) Other examples: balloon (to swell out like a balloon), flood, ghost (to act as a ghost),

mushroom, and snowball (to grow quickly in size or importance).

(f) "to make/change …into N": e.g. cash as in

"Please cash this check for me." damage or weaken seriously), feature (to have a

prominent part for), orphan, fool, and group.

(g) "to send/ go by N": e.g. mail as in "Will you please mail the parcel " Other examples: ship, telegraph, and telephone. Or bicycle as in "We bicycled to the

Summer Palace." Other examples: motor, boat, ski, etc.

(h) "to spend the period of time denoted by N": e.g. summer as in "We summered in

Qingdao." Other examples: holiday, winter, weekend, vacation, etc.

2. Verb----noun conversion: Nouns converted from verbs are not as numerous as verbs converted from nouns, because the English speaking people are inclined to employ derivation by means of de-verbal suffixes (as in arrangement from arrange). This verb to noun conversion may be subdivided into the following groups, based

on A Grammar of Contemporary English by R. Quirk et al.

(a) "state" (generally 'state of mind' or 'state of sensation') e.g. desire as in "He had

a desire to be a scientist." Other examples: doubt, disgust,

want, surprise.

(b) "event/ activity" (from dynamic verbs): The converted noun indicate a single instance or occasion. e.g. The noun commute means "an act or instance of

commuting" as in "his usual morning commute to work".

Examples

To have a look, swim, ride, try, drink;

To make a dash, dive, guess, search, an attempt;

To take a peep, stroll, turn.

Such expressions are informal and colloquial.

(c) "object or result of V": e.g. find n. "something found, esp. sth. valuable or pleasing" as in "This little restaurant is quite a find." Other examples: catch (of fish),

answer, cough, import and reject.

(d) "agent of V": e.g. bore as in "He is a great bore." Other examples: cheat, spy,

coach, help and rebel.

(e) " instrument of V": e.g. cover as in "The cloth is good cover for the table." Other

examples: cure, wrap and polish.

(f) "place of V": e.g. divide as in "This is the divide between the two rivers." More

examples: turn, rise, return and dump.

3. Adjective----verb conversion: Verbs converted from adjectives fall into two

groups:

(a) Intransitive verbs meaning "to be, become, the quality denoted by the

adjective," such as pale, slim, sour, mellow, dim (out) and idle (away).

(b) Transitive verbs meaning "to cause someone or something to be, become, the quality denoted by the adjective," yet these converted nouns take on only some of the feature of the noun; i.e. they do not take plural and genitive inflections, nor can

they be

preceded by determiners like a, this, my, etc. Therefore, such adjective to noun conversion is partial. This partial conversion may be subdivided into following

groups:

1) "Adjectives (including participles) denoting a quality or a state common to a group of people may be used without an accompanying noun to denoting such

people as a group."

e.g. one can say: a native, two natives, the native's language, and a returned native.

Complete conversion of adjectives to noun is not very productive.

5. Other conversions:

Tom went home early. (n.---ad.)

I will take a through train. (prep.---adj.)

My father was the then president. (ad.---adj.)

The department head pooh-poohed our plan. (interj---v.)

He knows all the ins and outs of the whole business. (ad.---n.)

Is Joan's new baby a he (pron.---n.)

His talk contains too many ifs and buts. (conj.---n.)

She feels very under-the weather. (phrase---adj.)

This book is a must for the students of physics. (aux. v.---n.) Notice that the above conversion are not very common. Conclusion

As a subject, word-formation is that branch of lexicology which studies the patterns

on which a language, in this case, the English language, coins new words. Compounding, derivation, and conversion are the three major types of

word-formation in contemporary English.

Compounding consists of combining two or more words into one which now expresses a single idea and functions as a separate lexical unit. Compounding is the most productive word-forming process in contemporary English. Compounds are classified into noun, adjective, and verb compounds. Each kind is subdivided according to the syntactic relations of the component parts of a compound. Two compounds may be similar in structure, yet the syntactic relations of their elements may be quite different. The process of derivation or affixation forms new words by the addition of a word element, such as a prefix, suffix or combining form, to an already existing word. Words formed in this way are called derivatives as distinguished from compounds, which are formed by combining separate words. Prefixation and suffixation are the

two processes of derivation. Prefixation is the addition of a prefix to the base. Prefixes modify the meaning of the base, but they do not generally alter its word-class. Every prefix has a specific

meaning of its own;

prefixes are therefore classified according to their meaning. Suffixation refers to the addition of a suffix to the base. Suffixes frequently alter the word-class of the base. Therefore, suffixes are classified according to the class of word they form into noun-forming suffixes, verb-forming suffixes, etc.

Conversion means the transfer of a word from one word-class to another. The converted words are new not in form but in function. By functional shift, an old noun may come to be a new verb. Today the commonest conversions are from nouns into verbs, and from verbs into nouns. In this way old words are rejuvenated. The English language is thus endowed with a fresh vitality, variety, and power.