英美概况名词解释和大题

III. Explain the following terms.

4. The Bill of Rights 《权利法案》

In 1789, James Madison introduced in the House of Representatives a series of amendments which later were drafted into twelve proposed amendments and sent to the states for ratification. Ten of them were ratified in 1791 and the first ten amendments to the constitution were called the Bills of Rights because they were to insure individual liberties.

5. The Emancipation Proclamation 《奴隶解放宣言》

After the Civil war began, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation to win more support at home and abroad. It granted freedom to all slaves in areas still controlled by the Confederacy.

6. The Constitutional Convention 《制宪会议》

In 1787, a conference was held in Philadelphia to consider what should be done to make the Articles of Confederation adequate. All the delegates agreed to revise the Articles of Confederation and draw up a new plan of government. After struggle, the Constitution was ratified at last. This conference is called the Constitutional Convention.

7. The Truman Doctrine 《杜鲁门主义》

On March 12, 1949, President Truman put forward the Truman Doctrine in a speech to the joint session of Congress. The Truman Doctrine meant to say that the U.S. government would support any country which said it was fighting against Communism.

8. The Marshall Plan 《马歇尔计划》

On June 5, 1947, the Secretary of State George Marshall announced the Marshall Plan, which meant that in order to protect Western Europe from possible Soviet expansion, the United States decided to offer Western European countries economic aid.

9. Checks and balances:

The government is divided into three branches, the legislative, the executive and the judicial, each has part of the powers but not all the power. And each branch of government can check, or block, the actions of the other branches. The three branches are thus in balance. This called “checks and balances”.

10. The New Deal 《新政》

In order to deal with the Depression, President Franklin Roosevelt put forward the New Deal program. It passed a lot of New Deal laws and set up many efficient social security systems. The New Deal helped to save American democracy and the development of American economy.

The Declaration of Independence: The Declaration of Independence was mainly drafted by Thomas Jefferson and adopted by the Congress on July 4, 1776, when the people of 13 English colonies in North America were fighting for their freedom and independence from the British colonial rule. The document declared that all men were equal and that they were entitled to have some unalienable rights such as life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. It also explained the philosophy of government: the powers of governments came from the consent of the governed and the purpose of governments were to secure the rights mentioned above. The theory of politics and the guiding principles of the American Revolution mainly came from John Locke.

The Articles of Confederation 《联邦条例》: After the War of Independence was won, the new nation of the United States was organized under the agreement of the Articles of Confederation with a weak national government called the Congress. Each state had its own government, made its own laws and handled its internal affairs. The states did not cooperate with the Congress and with each other. The Congress had no power to force any state to contribute money to the national government and the Congress could not tax any citizen either. As a result, the Articles of Confederation failed.

The Civil Rights Movement: It is one of the most important of all social movements in the 1960s in America. Rosa Parks’ spontaneous action in 1955 was believed to be the true beginning of the civil right, s movement. The black students’ sit-in at a department lunch counter in North Carolina touched off the nationwide civil right movement. During the first half of the decade, civil rights organizations like SNCC, CORE, and SCLC struggled for racial integration by providing leadership, tactics, network and the people. In the later half of the decade, some black organizations changed their nonviolent tactics, and emphasized on more radical means to end discrimination and raised the self-image of the blacks. The civil rights movement produced such great leaders as Martin Luther King. Jr. ,and Malcolm X, who inspired a generation of both blacks and whites to devote their lives to fighting for racial equality in the US.

Jazz: Jazz is a music genre that began at the 20th century in African American communities in the Southern United States. It came from a mix of African and European music traditions. Technically, it is a kind of music characterized by blue notes, syncopation, swing, call and response, and improvisation. Though originally a kind of dance music, jazz has now become a sophisticated art form. Jazz's development occurred at around the same time as modern ragtime, blues, gospel and country music, all of which can be seen as part of continuum with no clear demarcation between them. Some of the jazz musicians include Charlie Parker, Duke Ellington, and Louis Armstrong.

The cold war: By the end of WWII, the United States, which had not suffered as much as other allied countries, became the strongest country in the world. As the processor of atomic tombs and much of the world's gold reserve and industrial production in its hand, the policy-maker of the US wanted a world order dominated by the US, a world market free and open to American goods and services. In pursuing this goal, the US encountered determined resistance from the Soviet Union, Gradually the two wartime allies fell apart and the Cold War began.

The melting pot: “The melting pot” is a metaphor that is associated with life in America. It first surfaced in the late 18th century, but gained new currency in the 20th century when in 1905 a popular play by that name was first produced by a Jewish playwright named Israel Zangwill. The melting pot metaphor implied that, in the New World, all differences would be melted away to form a radically new mixture. But it was wrongly embraced by the WASPs which remained dominant until around the middle of the 20th century. After World War Ⅱ,the Anglophile WASPs gradually lost their privileged position. With all these changes, the melting pot metaphor was doomed to lose its credibility because its anglophilic values no longer held for the majority of the American people.

1. Why did the early settlers come to America? Who were the Pilgrims? Who were the Puritans? What were the features in the colonial period which had influence on later American development?

—— The early settlers came to America either for the opportunity to realize their dreams and better their lives or for the freedom from religious and governmental persecution. The Pilgrims were persons who suffered religious persecution in England and went to Holland and later moved to America in 1620. The Puritans were the members of a Protestant group in England who wanted to purify the Church of England. Dissatisfied and threatened in England, they saw America as a refuge and migrated to America since 1630. There were a number of features in the colonial period which had influence on later American development. They were: representative form of government, rule of law, respect of individual rights, religious tolerance and a strong spirit of individual enterprise.

2. What were the causes of the War of Independence?

——The economy In the thirteen colonies developed very fast and people wanted more power to detemine their own business. But the policy of the British government was to bring the development under control and to collect more taxes from the colonies. On April 19, 1775, on their way to Concord to seize the military supplies of the militia there, the British soldiers met armed militiamen. The shots were fired, the War of Independence began.

3. What was unusual about the Article of Confederation? What was the struggle at the Constitutional Convention? How was the conflict solved?

—— The Article of Confederation was unusual in many ways. First, it provided for no king. The drafters blamed the troubles with Britain on king George III. So they decided not to have a king but to have a republic. This was revolutionary. Second, while the Articles created a central government in the form of a Congress, the emphasis was still on state powers. Third, the Articles of Confederation was a written constitution for the United States. No important country in the world at that time, including Britain, had a written constitution. At the Constitution Convertion the delegates all agreed it was impossible to try to patch up the Articles of Confederation, and decided to ignore them and draw up a new plan of government. Here contradictions emerged between the bigger states and smaller states, between the industrial commercial interests and landed interests, etc. In the end, the conflict was resolved by the “Great Compromise” of July 16, giving each state and equal vote in the Senate but making representation in the House reflect the size of each state’s population.

4. Why did the Civil War break out? How did the war end?

—— In the early 1800s, the Northern states turned from farming to manufacturing. Black slavery soon disappeared in the North. But things were different in the South. The South expanded both its agriculture and its slavery. The problem of slavery became a serous political issue. The abolitionists tried to abolish slavery while the South tried to keep it. When Abraham Lincoln was elected President, the Southern states broke away and formed a new nation. Then Lincoln was determined to maintain the Union and the war broke out on April 12, 1861, Lincoln realized that he could win support for the Union at home and abroad by making the war a just war against slavery. So he issued Emancipation Proclamation. Thus England and France stood by the Union’s side. Many black slaves joined the Union Army. After a series of battles, Robert Lee could no longer hold Richmond. He surrendered on April 9, 1865. The Civil War ended.

6. What was the impact of the Vietnam War-on American society?

—— The Vietnam War had a great impact on American society.

(1) The United States was weakened as a result of the long war.

(2) American society had never been so divided since the Civil War.

(3) There was serious disagreement with in the ruling circle.

(4) The image of the United States, especially the image of the American armed forces, was discredited.

7. What are the functions of the Congress?

—— The Congress has many functions, but the most central is the passage of law. One of the most important non-legislative functions of the Congress is the power to investigate. A second important power is to compel testimony from unwilling witness and to cite for contempt of Congress witness who refuse to testify and for perjury those who give false testimony.

8. What are some of the characteristics of American education?

(1) Formal education in the United States consists of elementary, secondary and higher education.

(2) Public educations is free and compulsory.

(3) Diversity is considered to be an outstanding characteristic of American education.

(4)Education is a function of the states, not the federal government.

. Write about 150 on the following topic.

1. How did the Civil Wars break out? What were the consequences of the Civil Wars?

—— Charles I also believed “the Divine Right of kings”. His prerogative rights should not be challenged by anyone. It encouraged confrontation with Parliament, whose members had become increasingly Puritan in sympathy. He managed to rule England for 11 years without Parliament. But in 1640, Charles needed money and feared the invasion of the Scots and had to call the Long Parliament. Then a whole series of measures were introduced by the Parliament limiting the authority of the Crown while increasing its own. Thus, by 1642, the king and the commons were at each other’s throats, war was inevitable. In 1642, the first Civil War broke out. By autumn 1646, Parliament held most of England and next year Charles was captured but escaped. He made a deal with the Scots who invaded England but were defeated by Cromwell. Thus was the beginning of the Second Civil War. In November 1648, the king was captured again and condemned to death.

The English Civil Wars have been seen a conflict between Parliament and the king, but also as a conflict between the economic interests of the urban middle classes and the traditional economic interests of the Crown. The English Civil Wars not only overthrew feudal system in England but also shook the foundation of the feudal rule in Europe. It is generally regarded as the beginning of modern world history.

2. Tell briefly the history of the two-party system in the United States. What are the characteristics of the two major parties in the United States today?

—— Political parties are the basis of the American political system. In general, America has a two-party system. This means that two major political parties-now the Democrats and the Republicans-dominate politics at the federal, state and local levels. There have been four periods in the history of political parties in America. The first periods of the party system began with the first two major parties or camps —— the Federalists and the Anti-Federalists led by Alexander Hamilton. Most of the Anti-Federalists later accepted the Constitution with the Bill of Rights, and began to call themselves Democratic-Republican. After the 1828 election of Andrew Jackson, the Democratic-Republican Party split. The main faction, led by Andrew Jackson, called themselves the Democratic Party, while the faction opposed to Jackson formed the Whig Party in 1834. As the struggle over slavery intensified, the majority of the Whig Party, part of the democrats, and other anti-slavery elements founded in 1854 the Republican Party. The third phase of the two-party system ran from the 1860s to the 1920s with the Republican Party dominating the political scene for most of the time. The fourth period began with Franklin D. Roosevelt’s coming into power and lasted till the 1980s. In this period, for about 50 years, with short interruptions, the Democratic Party was dominant.

The Two major parties are really not very different today. But this does not mean there is not difference between them. On economic issues, the Democrats traditionally favour government intervention while the Republicans stress the role of the market more. On social issues the Democrats support a strong social security system while the Republicans oppose large government social security programs. In spite of these differences, the two parties both believe in individualism, defend capitalism and uphold private ownership of means of production. In terms of organization the two parties are actually loose political coalitions.

3. What were the causes and consequences of the War of 1812?

The causes leading to the war were the following:

(1) A war between Britain and France was going on in Europe. First the American government adopted a policy of not allowing trading with both countries. Later the U.S. government changed its policy by stating that if any of the two countries gave up its blockade against American shipping, the U.S. world lift the prohibition. In 1811, the U.S., on the condition that France would drop its blockade against American shipping, lifted the ban. This angered the British.

(2) The Americans resented the British practice of impressing or forcibly removing seamen from American ships on the grounds that they were British subjects.

(3) The U.S. wanted to take advantage of the War in Europe, when Britain and France had no time to look after their interests in the New World, to expand into Canada or Spanish Florida. This harmed the interests of the British.

—— The war had great impact on the development of the Unite States. Firstly, the war made people realize the importance of a strong national government. Secondly, the war strengthened the feeling of national unity and patriotism. Thirdly, for almost 10 years after the war, the Americans turned their attention to the devlopment of the western part of the continent. Fourthly, it made both Britain and the United States realize their disputes should be slove through negotiation. A shaky peace in 1814 turned into lasing peace between the two countries.

1. What are some of the major powers of each of the three branches of the US government? How are the three branches supposed to

check and balance each other?

The legislative branch can make federal laws, levy federal taxes, declare war or put foreign treaties into effect.

The centre of the executive branch is the president. The president can propose legislation to Congress, can issue regulations and directives regarding the work of the federal government’s many departments and agencies, can veto bills passed by Congress, appoint federal judges, the heads and senior officials of the executive branch agencies as well as ambassadors and other officials. He also is commander-in-chief of the armed forces.

The judicial branch applies and explains the laws. Federal courts have jurisdiction over cases arising out of the Constitution, laws and treaties of the US; maritime case; issues involving foreign citizens or governments; and cases in which the federal government itself is a party. The Supreme Court determines whether congressional legislation or executive action violates the Constitution.

2. What is the relationship between government and religion in America?

(1) In the first place, according to the First Amendment to the Constitution, the USA would have no state-supported religion. What’s more, the government has no right to meddle in religious affairs or require any religious beliefs of its citizens. And government does not pay ministers’ salaries or require any belief as a condition of holding public office.

(2) On the other hand, in some ways, the government supports all religions. Religious groups do not pay taxes in the United States. The armed forces pay chaplains of all faiths. Presidents and other political leaders often call on god to bless the American nation and people. Those whose religion forbids them to fight can perform other services instead of becoming soldiers.

(3) When disputes about the relationship between government and religion arise, American courts must settle them.

(4) In the early years, some people believe that Protestant religion and republican forms of government were connected, because God supports their experiment in republican government.

All in all, for some purposes government ignores religion and for other purposes it treats al religion alike, as long as it is practical.