写作中的困难

A

一、首先，让我们关注一下 英美人与中国人思维方式不同。英美人思维方式是直线式，他们在遣词造句谋篇上遵循着从一般（general ）到具体（specific ），从概括 （summarize ）到举例（exemplify ），从整体（whole ）到个体（respective ）原则。请看短文：

Soccer is a difficult sport.（1）A player must be able to run steadily without rest. （2）Sometimes a player must hit the ball with his or her head.（3）Players must be willing to bang into and be banged into by others.（4）They must put up with aching feet and sore muscles．

上面这则短文中，主题句（main idea sentence）也就是文章中心是第一句，

（1）（2）（3）（4）句是用来说明主题句。而在汉语中，我们习惯于先分后总，先说原因后说结果，即所谓“前因后果”，如果要表达相同意思，我们通常这样说：

足球运动员必须能不停地奔跑，有时得用头顶球，撞别人或被别人撞，必须忍受双脚和肌肉疼痛，所以说，足球运动是一项难度大运动。

再比如写下面一则便条，因你母亲突然生病，周末你不能和汤姆去跳舞了，你找了舞跳得很好时黛来代替你，并表示抱歉。

此英语便条为：

July 6，2002

Dear Tom，

I am sorry to inform you that I won't be able to go to dance with you this weekend. My mother is suddenly takenill. In order not to disappoint you, I have asked Shi Dai to take my place. She is a better dancer, I think. My regrets.

Joe

从便条中可以看出，英语表达先“果”—I won't be able to go to dance with you this weekend后“因”—my mother is suddenly

taken ill，即所谓“先果后因”。

一般来说，在单个句子中，英语句子也是先中心，也就是将主要思想、结果放在句首，放在主句里表达；而汉语正相反，一般为后中心，主要观点、信息往往放在句末。如：

He had to stay at hom e yesterday because he was ill．因为他病了，昨天他不得不呆在家里。

Tragedies can be written in literature since there is tragedy in life．生活中既然有悲剧，文学作品就可以写悲剧。所以说，大学生用英文写作时，就要按照英美人思维模式进行思考，也就是说要学会用英语进行思维，避免 写出中国式英语。

二、接下来，让我们看一下英汉句子结构特点。英语属印欧语系，汉语属汉藏语系，两种语言相距甚远，英语 结构紧凑，汉语结构松散。语言学家以“竹节句法”来比喻英语句子，即英语句子是由断不可缺各种连接词衔接而成，宛如节节相连竹子；而汉语句子则被比喻为“ 流水句法”，所谓流水指少用乃至不用连接词仍行文流畅。所以说，英语重形和，汉语重意和。英语句子中如果少了连接词如 or ，but ，if ，so ，because ，when ，although ， in order that，so that，所要表达意思就支离破碎了，而汉语如没连接词，只从句子本身意思就可以把概念或关系表达清楚。如：Conquer the desires，or they will conquer you．你如不能战胜欲念，欲念将要战胜你。 An Englishm an who could not speak

Chinese was once travelling in China．一个英国人，不会说中国话，有一次在中国旅行。

三、就是因为英语中各种连接词与替代词广泛使用，使得英语中出现“多枝共干”式长句，复合句；汉语则常用短句，简单句。请看下面一个英语长句以及其汉意。

It was on a Sunday evening，when he was lying in the orchard listening to a blackbird and composing a love poem，that he heard thegate swing to，and saw the girl coming running among the trees，with the redcheeked， stolid Joe in swift pursuit．一个星期日傍晚，他正躺在果园里，一面在听画眉鸟啁啾，一面在写一首爱情诗，忽然听得大门砰地关上，接着看见那姑娘从树丛里奔出来，后面 飞跟着那呆头呆脑红脸乔。 这是个英语强调句，其重心是：he heard the gate swing to and saw the girl com ing running am ong the trees．，而when he was ly- ing in the orchard listening to a blackbird and com posing a love poem是一个时间状语从句，这两个句子通过itwas...that... 这个强调句型巧妙地合为一个复合长句，整个句子简单明了，结构紧凑，若用汉语 表达则须分成好几个短句。再如：The president said at a conference dominated by questions on yesterday's election results that he could not explain why the Republicans had suffered such a widespread defeat，which in the end would deprive the

Republican Party of long-held superiority in the House．在一次记者招待会上，问题集中于昨天选举结果，总统就此发了言。他说他不能理解为什么共和党遭到了这样大失败。这种情况最终会使共和党失去在 众议院长期享有优势。

这个英语长句是由一个带有分词短语主句，两个宾语从句和一个非限制性定语从句组成，整个句子主干简单明了：The pres-identsaid...that...，若用汉语来表达，须把此长句拆开分成三个单句来分别叙述。

四、英语另一个显著特点是被动句多。英语重物称，常常选择不能施行动作或无生命词语作主语，由于这些“ 无灵”物称充当主语，使得被动句大兴其道。在英语被动句里，不必强调动作施行者，就将其置于句尾由by 连接；不必、不愿或不便言明动作施行者，就干脆将其 省略。相对而言，汉语习惯于人称化表达，主语常常是能施行动作或有生命物体，所以汉语中主动句多。请看例句： It has been known for a long time that there is a first relationship between the heart and the liver．长期以来，大家知道心脏与肝脏关系是最主要。 The famous hotel had been practically destroyed by the big fire．大火几乎使这家有名旅馆全部毁灭。

They were given a hearty welcome．他们受到热烈欢迎。

五、英语又一显著特点是其丰富时态。不同语言具有不同时态，有语言甚至很少或没有时态，汉语基本上就是 借助词汇来表示各种时间和动作，汉语动词除了只有“着”、“了”、“过”若干说法与英语进行时、完成时或过去时相对外，别无其他与英语相对应时体形式；而 英语不仅有时态，而且种类繁多（共有16种时态），区分细微，习惯性强。英语就是通过这些固定语法手段将动作进行过程与状况描绘得更准确更精细，有时甚至 能表达说话人感情色彩。如：You're always asking me such questions！你老是问我这样问题！（用现在进行时表示厌烦）。I am now living in a very pleasant flat．我现在住在一间非常舒适公寓里。（用现在进行时表示满意） 所以，传递同样意思，英语只要选用合适时态就可以了，汉语则必须使用词汇手段。又如：It has been noted that those who live ，or have lived，in the shadow of death bring a m ellow sweetness to everything theydo．人们已经注意到大凡受到死亡威胁人或是死里逃生人对于他们所干任何事总是兴趣盎然。

六、从词汇方面讲，英汉两种语言也有很大差异。就词组而言，英语中词组或短语可谓林林总总，丰富多彩， 有名词短语、动词短语、形容词短语、介词短语、分词短语、不定式短语与独立结构等，它们语法功能不一而足，可作主语、谓语、宾语、定语、状语与表语等。 如：Marriage may be compared to a cage：the birds outside despair to get in and those within despair to get out．婚姻好比鸟笼，外面鸟儿想进进不去，里面鸟儿想出出不来。（不定式短语to get in，to get out作状语）

I am utterly in the dark about the matter．我对这件事完全不知道。（介词词组in the dark作表语）。Christmas is coming up．圣诞节就要到了。（动词短语come up作谓语）。相比之下，汉语更偏重以单音节或多音节单词为其基本句法成分，而且其短语用法十分有限。

语言形成与发展深受本国、本土、历史、地理、风土人情等各方面影响，英语、汉语也不例外。英语中某些词 含义并不完全与汉语对等，比如lover 这个词，大多数中国人认为是“爱人”（丈夫或妻子），其实在西方lover 指是情夫或情妇；再比如First Lady，在英美等国指是总统夫人或州长夫人，而在中国常会

被误解，认为是“原配夫人”。 又如 intellectual 这个词，在英美等国其范围较小，只包括大学教授等有较高学术地位人，不包括普通大学生，而多数中国人认为 intellectual 就是“知识分子”，而且汉语中知识分子所指范围很广，大学教师、中学教师、大学生、医生、工程师、翻译人员以及一切受过大学教育 人都可以称为知识分子。

此外英语中许多词常常一词多义，它们所表达各个含义，分别与汉语中几个不同词或词组相对应，所以，在用英文写作时，一定要慎重地选词用词，以期贴切地表达思想。

综上所述，只有充分了解英汉表达各种差异，才会胸有成竹，下笔有神，行文流畅。

B

一、词汇选择——标新立异

在写作中“较高级词汇”的使用主要是指使用《大纲》上没有的词语、使用通过构词法变化来的新词、使用同（近）义词或反义词等来代替常见词语。

1）这栋房子在芳草街的一栋楼上。(NMET2003)

A: The flat is in a building on Fangcao Street.

B: The flat situates in a building on Fangcao Street.

分析：is in是常见词语，而situates in则是《大纲》上没有的，属于高级词汇。

2）在周末我们做很多作业。(NMET1995)

A: At weekends, we have a lot of homework to do.

B: At weekends, we have endless homework to do.

分析：B 句在表达时没有使用过于直接的a lot of，而是使用了endless 。endless 就是由《大纲》词汇end 加后缀-less 变化来的。

3）洗澡间和厨房都很好。(NMET2003)

A: The bathroom and the kitchen are good.

B. The bathroom and the kitchen are well-furnished.

在表达要点时，B 句使用了well-furnished ，这比good 语气强，也显得生动。

在造句时，“较高级词汇”如能运用贴切自然，哪怕整篇文章只用上一个，也会使你的作文显示出与众不同。

二、结构造句——与众不同

在造句时，既要使句子生动，又要使其简明扼要。

1. 使用与人不同的表达方式，特别是提倡打破汉语句子结构的束缚而重组的句子更受欢迎。

1）唐山曾在二十世纪八十年代发生过一次大地震。

A: There was a strong earthquake in Tangshan in the 1980s.

B: A terrible earthquake hit/struck Tangshan in the 1980s.

大多数同学使用了there be结构，这是对的，但是B 句却摒弃了常见句式，另辟蹊径而使用了“主语+谓语+宾语”结构，且使用了terrible ，hit/strike这样的词汇，更是难能可贵的。

2）你八月十五日的来信我今天早晨收到了。

A:I received your letter which was written on August 15th this morning.(多数人使用的方式)

B: Your letter of August 15th reached/ got to me this morning.(与多数人使用的方式不同, 简洁)

2. 使用一些强势句式，如强调句、感叹句、倒装句等，增强语句的表现力。如：

3）阿福救了我妹妹。(MET1993)

A: Ah Fu saved my sister.(一般句式)

B: It was Ah Fu that saved my sister.(强调句式)

4）我们看到庄稼和蔬菜长势喜人很是高兴.(NMET1998)

A: We were glad to see crops and vegetables growing well.(一般陈述句) B: How glad we were to see crops and vegetables growing well.(感叹句)

3. 句式多样，复杂得体。在写作中应避免使用相同长度的相同句型，而应注意句式的变化，如长短句结合，简单句、并列句与复合句共用，还可使用简 化句等；一些较复杂的结构如独立主格，分词结构等也可使用。下面的表达中A

句简单句多，而且多处使用there be结构，显得单调、乏味，而B 句就有自己的特色（请同学们自己分析）。

5）这是一套25平方米的住房，住房里面有卧室、有洗澡间、有厨房；卧室里有床、沙发、桌子和椅子等。(NEMT2003)

A: It's a flat of 25 square metres. There is a bedroom in the flat. There is a bathroom and a kitchen in it, too. In the bedroom, there is a bed; there is a sofa, a desk and a chair as well.

B: It's a flat of 25 square metres, with a bedroom, a bathroom and a kitchen. In the bedroom there is a bed, a sofa, a desk and a chair.

三、布局谋篇——独具匠心

在写作中，我们可按时间、空间或其它逻辑顺序来安排各要点，同时为使主题突出，结构严谨, 我们应注意学习和使用交代句以及段落的主题句等。在布局谋篇上，NMET2002范文堪称典范。请看：

Opinions are divided on the question.

60% of the students are against the idea of entrance fees. They believe a public park should be free of charge. People need a place where they can rest and enjoy themselves. Charging entrance fees will no doubt keep some people away. What is more, it will become necessary to build gates and walls, which will do harm to the appearance of a city.

On the other hand, 40% think that fees should be charged because you need money to pay gardens and other workers, and to buy plants and young trees. They suggested, however, fees should be charged low.

1）该文使用Opinions are divided...作交代句，开门见山，随后两个段落均使用了主题句（见黑体字部分），使全文结构紧凑，表达严谨。

2）在表述要点时范文还对要点出场顺序作了调整，如"40%的同学认为应收门票，但不宜过高" ，前部分作为主题句放在句首，而后部分另起一句放 在句末：They suggested，however ，fees should be charged low.这样就分清了轻重缓急，主题突出，条理清楚。

3）范文使用了and ，what is more，however 等连词，在段落之间使用了on the other hand（说明前后两个观点是相悖的），这些连接手段的运用加强了句子之间、段落之间的联系，使文章表达连贯，浑然一体。

4）范文在第二段为说明不收门票的“原因”时增加了Charging entrance fees will no doubt keep some people away.等细节，这也是解决句与句之间缺少连贯性的常见方法。

总之，要想使自己的文章有亮点，吸引读者，在考试中获得高分，就应在用词、造句、谋篇上下功夫，哪怕是有一处特长都是“亮”点，都是值得肯定的。 C

1. 经济的快速发展 the rapid development of economy

2. 人民生活水平的显著提高/ 稳步增长the remarkable improvement/ steady growth of people’s living standard

3. 先进的科学技术 advanced science and technology

4. 面临新的机遇和挑战 be faced with new opportunities and challenges

5. 人们普遍认为 It is commonly believed/ recognized that„

6. 社会发展的必然结果 the inevitable result of social development

7. 引起了广泛的公众关注 arouse wide public concern/ draw public attention

8. 不可否认 It is undeniable that„/ There is no denying that„

9. 热烈的讨论/ 争论 a heated discussion/ debate

10. 有争议性的问题 a controversial issue

11. 完全不同的观点 a totally different argument

12. 一些人 „而另外一些人 „ Some people„ while others„

13. 就我而言/ 就个人而言 As far as I am concerned, / Personally,

14. 就„达到绝对的一致 reach an absolute consensus on„

15. 有充分的理由支持 be supported by sound reasons

16. 双方的论点 argument on both sides

17. 发挥着日益重要的作用 play an increasingly important role in„

18. 对„必不可少 be indispensable to „

19. 正如谚语所说 As the proverb goes:

20.„也不例外 „be no exception

21. 对„产生有利/不利的影响 exert positive/ negative effects on„

22. 利远远大于弊 the advantages far outweigh the disadvantages。

23. 导致，引起 lead to/ give rise to/ contribute to/ result in

24. 复杂的社会现象 a complicated social phenomenon

25. 责任感 / 成就感 sense of responsibility/ sense of achievement

26. 竞争与合作精神 sense of competition and cooperation

27. 开阔眼界 widen one’s horizon/ broaden one’s vision

28. 学习知识和技能 acquire knowledge and skills

29. 经济/心理负担 financial burden / psychological burden

30. 考虑到诸多因素 take many factors into account/ consideration

31. 从另一个角度 from another perspective

32. 做出共同努力 make joint efforts

33. 对„有益 be beneficial / conducive to„

34. 为社会做贡献 make contributions to the society

35. 打下坚实的基础 lay a solid foundation for„

36. 综合素质 comprehensive quality

37. 无可非议 blameless / beyond reproach

39. 致力于/ 投身于 be committed / devoted to„

40. 应当承认 Admittedly,

41. 不可推卸的义务 unshakable duty

42. 满足需求 satisfy/ meet the needs of„

43. 可靠的信息源 a reliable source of information

44. 宝贵的自然资源 valuable natural resources

45. 因特网 the Internet (一定要由冠词，字母I 大写)

46. 方便快捷 convenient and efficient

47. 在人类生活的方方面面 in all aspects of human life

48. 环保(的) environmental protection / environmentally friendly

49. 社会进步的体现 a symbol of society progress

50. 科技的飞速更新 the ever-accelerated updating of science and technology

51. 对这一问题持有不同态度 hold different attitudes towards this issue

52. 支持前/后种观点的人 people / those in fovor of the former/ latteropinion

53. 有/ 提供如下理由/ 证据 have/ provide the following reasons/ evidence

54. 在一定程度上 to some extent/ degree / in some way

55. 理论和实践相结合 integrate theory with practice

56. „必然趋势 an irresistible trend of„

57. 日益激烈的社会竞争 the increasingly fierce social competition

58. 眼前利益 immediate interest/ short-term interest

59. 长远利益. interest in the long run

60.„有其自身的优缺点 „ has its merits and demerits/ advantages and disadvantages

61. 扬长避短 Exploit to the full one’s favorable conditions and avoid unfavorable ones

62. 取其精髓，取其糟粕 Take the essence and discard the dregs。

63. 对„有害 do harm to / be harmful to/ be detrimental to

64. 交流思想/ 情感/ 信息 exchange ideas/ emotions/ information

65. 跟上„的最新发展 keep pace with / catch up with/ keep abreast with the latest development of „

66. 采取有效措施来„ take effective measures to do sth。

67.„的健康发展 the healthy development of „

68. 有利有弊 Every coin has its two sides。

No garden without weeds。

69. 对„观点因人而异 Views on „vary from person to person。

70. 重视 attach great importance to„

71. 社会地位 social status

72. 把时间和精力放在„上 focus time and energy on„

73. 扩大知识面 expand one’s scope of knowledge

74. 身心两方面 both physically and mentally

75. 有直接/间接关系 be directly / indirectly related to„

76. 提出折中提议 set forth a compromise proposal

77. 可以取代 “think”的词 believe, claim, maintain, argue, insist, hold the opinion/ belief that

78. 缓解压力/ 减轻负担 relieve stress/ burden

79. 优先考虑/发展„ give (top) priority to sth。

80. 与„比较 compared with„/ in comparison with

81. 相反 in contrast / on the contrary。

82. 代替 replace/ substitute / take the place of

83. 经不起推敲 cannot bear closer analysis / cannot hold water

84. 提供就业机会 offer job opportunities

85. 社会进步的反映 mirror of social progress

86. 毫无疑问 Undoubtedly, / There is no doubt that„

87. 增进相互了解 enhance/ promote mutual understanding

88. 充分利用 make full use of / take advantage of

D

以下是短文写作中使用率最高、覆盖面最广的基本句式，每组句式的功能相同或相似，考生可根据自己的情况选择其中的1－2个，做到能够熟练正确地仿写或套用。

以下是短文写作中使用率最高、覆盖面最广的基本句式，每组句式的功能相同或相似，考生可根据自己的情况选择其中的1－2个，做到能够熟练正确地仿写或套用。

1．表示原因

1）There are three reasons for this．

2）The reasons for this are as follows．

3）The reason for this is obvious．

4）The reason for this is not far to seek．

5）The reason for this is that．．．

6）We have good reason to believe that．．．

例如：

There are three reasons for the changes that have taken place in our life ．Firstly ，people’s living standard has been greatly

improved ．Secondly ，most people are well paid ， and they can afford what they need or like ．Last but not least ，more and more people prefer to enjoy modern life．

注：如考生写第一个句子没有把握，可将其改写成两个句子。如：Great changes have taken place in our life． There are three reasons for this．这样写可以避免套用中的表达失误。

2．表示好处

1）It has the following advantages．

2）It does us a lot of good．

3）It benefits us quite a lot．

4）It is beneficial to us．

5）It is of great benefit to us．

例如：

Books are like friends ．They can help us know the world better ，and they can open our minds and widen our horizons ．Therefore ，reading extensively is of great benefit to us．

3．表示坏处

1）It has more disadvantages than advantages．

2）It does us much harm．

3）It is harmful to us．

例如：

However ，everything divides into two．Television can also be harmful to us ．It can do harm to our health and make us lazy if we spend too much time watching television．

4．表示重要、必要、困难、方便、可能

1）It is important （necessary ，difficult ，convenient ， possible）for sb ．to do sth．

2）We think it necessary to do sth．

3）It plays an important role in our life．

例如：

Computers are now being used everywhere，whether in the government，in schools or in business．Soon ， computers will be found in every home，

too ．We have good reason to say that computers are playing an increasingly important role in our life and we have stepped into the Computer Age．

5．表示措施

1）We should take some effective measures．

2）We should try our best to overcome（conquer ）the difficulties．

3）We should do our utmost in doing sth．

4）We should solve the problems that we are confronted（faced ）with ． 例如：

The housing problem that we are confronted with is becoming more and more serious ．Therefore ，we must take some effective measures to solve it．

6．表示变化

1）Some changes have taken place in the past five years．

2）A great change will certainly be produced in the world’s

communications ．

3）The computer has brought about many changes in education． 例如：

Som e changes have taken place in people’s diet in the past five years．The major reasons for these changes are not far to seek．Nowadays ，more and more people are switching from grain to meat for protein ，and from fruit and vegetable to milk for vitamins．

7．表示事实、现状

1）We cannot ignore the fact that．．．

2）No one can deny the fact that．．．

3）There is no denying the fact that．．．

4）This is a phenomenon that many people are interested in．

5）However ，that’s not the case．

例如：

We cannot ignore the fact that industrialization brings with it the problems of pollution ．To solve these problems ， we can start by educating the public about the hazards of pollution．The government on its part should also design stricter laws to promote a cleaner environment．

8．表示比较

1）Compared with A，B ．．．

2）I prefer to read rather than watch TV．

3）There is a striking contrast between them．

例如：

Compared with cars，bicycles have several advantages besides being affordable ．Firstly ，they do not consume natural resources of

petroleum ．Secondly ，they do not cause the pollution problem．Last but not least ，they contribute to people’s health by giving them due physical exercise ．

9．表示数量

1）It has increased（decreased ）from ．．．to ．．．

2）The population in this city has now increased （decreased ）to 800，000．

3）The output of July in this factory increased by 15％ compared with that of January．

例如：

With the improvement of the living standard ，the proportion of people’s income spent on food has decreased while that spent on education has increased ．

再如：

From the graph listed above ，it can be seen that student use of computers has increased from an average of less than two hours per week in 1990 to 20 hours in 2000．

10．表示看法

1）People have（take ，adopt ，assume ）different attitudes towards sth．

2）People have different opinions on this problem．

3）People take different views of（on ）the question．

4）Some people believe that．．．Others argue that．．．

例如：

People have different attitudes towards failure ．Some believe that failure leads to success．

Every failure they experience translates into a greater chance of success at their renewed endeavor．However ， others are easily discouraged by failures and put themselves into the category of losers．

再如：

Do “lucky numberseally bring good luck？Different people have different views on it．

注：一个段落有时很适宜以问句开始，考生应掌握这一写作方法。

11．表示结论

1）In short，it can be said that ．．．

2）It may be briefly summed up as follows．

3）From what has been mentioned above，we can come to the conclusion that ．．．

例如：

From what has been mentioned above，we can come to the conclusion that examination is necessary，however ， its method should be improved．

注：例句1可用于任何一个段落的结论句；例句3则多用文章结论段的第一句。

12．套语

1）It’s well known to us that ．．．

2）As is known to us，．．．

3）This is a topic that is being widely talked about．

4）From the graph （table ，chart ）listed above ，it can be seen that ．．．

5）As a proverb says，“Where there is a will，there is a way． 例如：

As is well known to us ，it is important for the students to know the world outside campus．

The reason for this is obvious．Nowadays ，the society is changing and developing rapidly ，and the campus is no longer an “ivory towerAs college students ，we must get in touch with the world outside the campus．Only in this way can we adapt ourselves to the society quickly after we graduate ．

再如：

Does it pay to be honest ？This is a topic that is being widely talked about and different people have different opinions on it．